Grammar I: Notes 2011; Syntax

Classification of Sentences

The Simple Sentence

It consists of just on main clause that has one finite verb, although it may have other verb phrases that contain other verb forms. For example: "the dog barking the neighbors in ownless."

The Compound Sentence

It consists of two or more main clauses that may be joined in one of three ways:

1. With coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, yet, for: "She doesn't know how to drive, but she will eventually learn."; "I won't have money til next week, yet I'll get by somehow or other". Sometimes conjunctions are used in pairs to link clauses or smaller grammatical units that are balanced. These types of conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions: either...or; neither...or; not only...but also; both... and; as...as.
2. With a semicolon (;): Semicolons are used when two independent clauses are linked with no connecting words: "I've changed my mind; I will stay in home."
3. With a semicolon and a connector: Connectors, often called conjunctive adverbs, are used to connect main clauses to make compound sentences. The principal connectors are: however, therefore, otherwise, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, hence, also, thus, consequently, besides, accordingly, meanwhile, etc.

The Complex Sentence

It usually connects ideas of unequal importance. They are formed by joining an independent clause with a subordinate clause: "I wanted to sleep when everybody was making noise."

Clause

Subordinate clauses have different functions when related with main clauses. There are three types of subordinate clauses that differ in their functioning:

• Adjectival clauses

• Noun clauses

• Adverbial clauses

Adjectival Clauses: They are used in the same way as a single-word adjective, describing and modifying nouns. It comes immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it describes.
Relative clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which, that and the relative adverbs where, when, and why. The noun modifying by an adjective phrase or clause is called antecedent.

"I saw a house that was very pretty."

Relative clauses are either defining or non-defining. A defining clause cannot be omitted from the sentence without changing the meaning. A non-definining clause gives additional information, but does not define the antecedent; it is enclosed by commas. 

*The relative pronoun that is used only in defining clauses, and along with the other relative pronouns except of whose, might be omitted if possible.

> Reduction of relative clauses.
There are three common ways to reduce and adjective clause beginning with who, which,  or that (used as subject of the sentence) to a phrase.

1. Omitting the relative pronoun and the be form of the verb: "The woman (who is) cooking is my mother"; "the dog (which is) barking outside belongs to her"; "The country (that is) in crisis in Greece."
2. In clauses that do not contain a form of be, it is usually possible to omit the pronoun and change the verb to its ing form: "The person (who knows/knowing) how to use a computer will get the job."; "The book (that has/having) 100 pages ins mine"
3. Some adjective clauses can be reduced to appositive phrases. "Combat sports, (which are) my favorites ones, are not as popular as other sports in my country"; "My brother, (who is) aged 13, plays soccer in B.S."

Adverbial Clauses: They have a large array of functions within the sentence, which answer different questions, such as when, how, why.

> Time: Before, after, until, when, whenever, as, since, till, as soon as, etc: "After you leave, check if you have everything you need."

> Place: Where, whenever, anywhere, everywhere, elsewhere: "I like where we went yesterday."

> Reason: Because, since, as, given: "Since I know you too well, I imagine what you re going to do."

> Purpose: So that, on order that: "I won't take a nap, so that I go to bed early tonight."

> Manner: As, as if, as though, like, the way: "Feel as if this were you home."

> Condition: As long as, in case, provided that, unless, whether or not, if: "I'll do it provided (that) you pay me."; "I'll do it whether he pays me or not."; "As long as he pays me, I'll do it."

> Result: So...that; such...that: "He was so tall that he could change a bulb without a ladder."

> Contrast: Although, though, even though, while, in spite of the fact that: "I love listening to music although I don't have much time to do it."

Noun Clauses: It is used in the same way as a single-word noun. It consist of a subordinate conjunction, a subject an a verb. They occur frequently when we present out own thoughts or report on the ideas of others. Noun clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions: that sub, what, how, when, whether, if, where, why.

>Functions of noun clauses
• subject of a sentence: "what she wears is never old-fashion."; "what they have done is unfair."
• object of a sentence: "you reap what you sow."; "they will say that it was not their fault."

• object of a preposition: "have you thought of how you'll do it."; "I don't believe in what the book says."
• apposition to a noun: "the condition, that we have to pay him, is not fair."; "the likelihood, that it will rain, is high."
• complement of a verb: "the kid became what he wanted to be."
• adjective complement: "I'm sure that you can do it"; "she's not aware that her behavior will make her regret."

*That can be omitted when it introduces a noun clause as object of a verb, or in other words, when it is not subject of said clause.

Conjunctions

It is a word that joins together other words, phrases and sentences. There are two general clauses of conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

> Coordinating Conjunctions: They join sentences of equal importance or two words that stand in the same relation to some other word in the sentence. There are different kinds of conjunctions:

• Cumulatives: They add one statement to another (and, both...and, not only...but)

• Alternatives: They represent a choice between two options (or, otherwise, either...or)

• Adversatives: They contrast one statement with another (but, yet, however, nevertheless)

• Illative: They infer one statement from another (so, therefore, consequently)

• Explanatory: They explain one statement by means of another (for)

> Subordinating Conjunctions: They join together sentences of unequal value. The most commonly used Subordinating conjunctions are: that, where, whom, while, before, until, if, after, since, because, (al)though, unless, as.

There are other connectives, which are not conjunctions, that are used to introduce subordinating clauses. These connectives are relative pronouns or relative adverbs: that, which, who, where, etc: "He's the man who I want to see."

Conditional Sentences

> Zero Conditional: It refers to conditions that are always true, with automatic or habitual result.

• if + present simple, present simple;"If the moon gets closer to the Earth, the tides rise."

> First Conditional: It expresses possible conditions, probable results as well as other functions as threats, warnings, offers, etc.

• if + present simple, will + bare infinitive; "If you don't harry up, they will leave without you."
• If can be replaced by unless or in case of.
• Will can be replaced by can, should; bare infinitive; going to.
• The present simple in the "if" clause can be replaced by the present perfect.

> Second conditional: It expresses a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In same cases, the condition is possible in theory but improbable in practice.

• if + past simple, would + bare infinitive: "If petrol were free, I would drive up to Alaska."
• In the if clause, when there is a negative verb, then if can be replaced by unless.
• Would can be replaced by could or might.

> Third Conditional: It expresses a imaginary situation about the past; actions that happened in a way which is impossible to change now.

• if + past perfect, would + past perfect: "If I had known she was an spy, I wouldn't have fallen into the trap."

Grammar I: Notes 2011; Reported Speech

Have sth Done

• This structure is used to say we arrange for someone to do sth for us: "I had my hair cut."

• It is also used to express that sth unpleasant happened to somebody: "She had her jewelery stolen."

• In informal register the verb "get" can be used instead of "have": "I'm getting my computer repaired."

Reported Speech

We can report people's words by using direct speech or reported speech. While the latter expresses the exact meaning of what somebody said, but not the exact words, direct speech quotes the exactly the same words somebody said.

• Out-of-date reporting: Someone's words are repeated a long time after they were said. In this case, the introductory verb is in the past simple and most of the other tenses shift one tense back. Thus, present simple becomes past simple, past simple becomes past perfect and so forth.
• Up-to-date reporting: Someone's words are reported a short time after they were said, and the tenses can either change or remain the same.

> When this/these are used in time expressions, they change to that/those.

> When this/these and that/those work as demonstrative adjectives, the change to the.

> When this/these and that/those work as pronouns, the change to it or they/them.

Certain modal verbs change as follows

> will/shall ➝ would
> may ➝ might
> can ➝ could

> can ➝ could / would be able to (fut per)

> must ➝ must / had to (obligation)

> shall ➝ should (asking for permission)

Would, could, might, should, ought to, had better and musn't do not change in reported speech. Additionally, must does not change when it expresses logical assumption.

Verb Tenses

> Verb tenses and time expressions change:

1. Out-of-date reporting

2. When we consider what the speaker says to be untrue

> Verb tenses can either change or remain the same:

1. Up-to-date reporting

2. General truth or laws of nature

> Verb tenses remain the same

1. When the introductory verb is in the present, future or present perfect.

Reported Questions

> They are introduced with ask, inquire, wonder or want to now.

> When the question begins with a wh question word, the reported question is introduced with the some question word.

> When the question begins with an auxiliary or modal verb, the reported question is introduced with if or whether.> Inserts (fillings) and question marks are omitted.

Reported commands, requests, suggestions

> Commands or instructions ➝ order or tell [sb to do sth]: "turn down the music" he told them; "he ordered them to turn down the music."

> Requests ➝ ask or beg [sb to do sth]: he said to them,"please, turn down the music."; "he asked them to turn down the music."

> Suggestions ➝ suggest [ing form] [that sb (should)] [bare inf]: "perhaps we could eat earlier" I said; "I suggested eating earlier."

Introductory Verb

> Verb + to-ing

agree

offer

promise [1]

refuse

threaten [1]

> Verb + sb + to-ing

advise [1]

ask

beg

command

invite

order

remind [1]

warn [1]

> Verb + ing-form (gerund)

admit [1]

accuse sb of [1]

apologize for [1]

boast about/of [1]

complain to sb of [1]

deny [1]

insist on [1]

suggest [1]

> Verb + that

admit [2]

advise [2]

boast [2]

complain [2]

deny [2]

explain

exclaim/remark

insist [2]

promise [2]

remind [2]

suggest that sb (should)

threaten [2]

warn [2]

> Verb + sb + having done

admit [3]

accuse [2]

apologize for [2]

deny [3]

> My doing

insist [3] "she insisted on my doing my homework"

Reporting a dialogue

and

as

but

since

while

then

adding that

and (sb) added that

because

and then (sb) went on to say

Grammar I: Notes 2011; Verbs: tenses, classification, mood, modals

Verb Tenses

Present Simple
1. Permanent states, repeated actions, daily routines.
2. General truths and laws of nature.
3. Timetables and programmes.
4. Sport commentaries, reviews, narratives.

Used with: always, usually, every day/week/year, in the morning, at night, etc.

Present Continuous
1. Actions taking place at the moment of speaking or temporary actions (going on around now, but not at the moment of speaking).
2. To express irritations at actions that happen too often (with always).
3. Arranged actions in the near future "They are getting together tonight."
4. Changing or developing situations "Day by day more teenagers are dropping out school."

Used with: now, at the moment, these days, at present, nowadays,still, etc.

Past Simple
1. An action which happened at a definite time in the past (the time is stated, already know or implied).
2. Actions that happened immediately one after the other"He saw her and kissed her. Then they went away."
3. Past habits or states which are now finished (we can also use "used to").
4. To talk about the lives of people who are not longer alive "Freddy Mercury confessed about his decease in 1990."

Used with: yesterday, last night, ago, then, when, in 1999, etc.

Past Continuous
1. An action which was in progress at a stated time in the past (It is not mentioned when the action started or finished).
2. An action which was in progress when another action interrupted it (present Continuous is used for the action in progress, and present simple for the action which was interrupted).
3. Two or more simultaneous past actions.
4. To describe the atmosphere in the introduction to a story before we describe the main events.

Used with: when, while, as, all day/morning, etc.

Present Perfect
1. To describe an actions which started in the past and continues up to the present.
2. An action which has just finished and whose results is visible in the present.
3. An actions which happened at an unstated time in the past (time is not important, so it is not mentioned. The action is on th action).
4. An action which has happened within a specific time period which is not over at moment of speaking.

Used with: already, yet, just, always, ever, never, so far, etc.

Present Perfect Continuous
1. To put emphasis on the duration of an action which started in the past and continues up to the present (for/since...all morning).
2. An action which lasted some time in the past and whose result is visible in the present.
3. To express anger, annoyance or irritation.

 Past Perfect
1. An action which happened before another past action or before a stated time in the past "They had already left school at 8:00".
2. An action which finished in the past and whose result was visible in the past.

Used with: before, after, already, for, since, just, till/until, by, by the time, never, etc.

Past Perfect Continuous
1. To put emphasis on the duration of an action which started and finished in the past before another past action or a stated time in the past (usually with: since or for).
2. An action which lasted some time in the past and whose result was visible in the past

Used with: for, since, how long, before, until, etc.

Future Simple
1. In predictions about the future (usually with: think, believe, expect, etc).
2. On-the-spot decisions and offers.
3. Actions/events/situations which will definitely happen in the future and  which we cannot control "Tomorrow will be Friday".
4. For promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes "I hope it will stop soon".

Future Continuous
1. An action which will be in progress at a stated time in the future "Tomorrow, I'll be dancing at the party".
2. An action which will definitely happen in the future as a result of a routine or arrangement "I'll be seeing them at the meeting".
3. When we ask politely about someone's plans for the near future "We want to know if our wishes fit with their plans".

Future Perfect
1. An action which will be finished before a stated future time "I'll have eaten all b 4:00".

Used with: by, by the time, until, by then, etc.

Future Perfect Continuous
1. To emphasize the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future "By the time I come back, I'll have been riding for ten hours".

Used with: by...for

Another Forms of Referring to the Future

• Be going to
• for plans, intentions or ambitions we have for the future "I'm going to get a course on French".
• in predictions when there is no evidence that something will happen in the near future "Listen! they are going to play the song".

• Present Continuous
• Arrangements in the near future "I'm seeing him next week". 

• Present Simple
• Referring to programmes or timetables "The movie starts in ten minutes".

 

Classification of Verbs

In respect to the function of each item in a verb phrase, we can distinguish lexical verbs from auxiliary verbs:

• Lexical Verbs: They are the ones which tell what the action or state of the subject is. They carry semantic meaning, and can act as the core if a verb phrase.
• Auxiliary Verbs: They help other verbs to form interrigative, negative and emphatic forms of speech and to form tenses, mood and voice. They also have the characteristic that can form questions tags, echo tags and different types of short answers. This kind of verb are in their turn subdivided into primary and modal verbs. A sentence example to this is "We are leaving tomorrow morning."

Finite Verbs: They can form the predicate by themselves since they have tense distinction, person and number concord between the subject and verb.
Non-finite Verb: They cannot form predicate by themselves. The form they take are the infinitive, ing participle and ed participle.

The type of complement used in a predicate depends on the type of principal verb. There are three types of principal verbs.

• Transitive Verbs: They have to be followed by an object to complete their meaning.
• Intransitive Verbs: They does not require an object. They usually expresses motion and is often followed by an adverbial.
• Linking Verbs: They have to be followed by a complement to complet their meaning. The main function of these verbs are to link the subject to a complement. The linking verb by itself does not have much meaning, but the linking verb and the complement together describe the state of the subject.

Stative Verbs: They cannot be used in progressive forms because they refer to states and not to actions. There are four states of stative verbs, which are: verb of the mind, verbs of emotions and feelings, verbs of senses, and verbs of possessions.
Dynamic Verbs: They can be used in progressive forms because they refer to actions, either voluntary or changing situations.

Regular Verbs: They are the ones that can form their past tenses by a adding ed or d to the base.
Irregular Verbs: They form their past tense an past participle by a change of vowel, or using a completely different word.