Lengua Española I: Final

Oración: Según la RAE la oración es la unidad más pequeña de sentido completo en la que se divide el habla real.

Aposición

1. explicativa (excluible; entre comas)

2. especificativa (inexcluible; sin comas)

"Lisboa, la capital de Portugal..." [aposición explicativa]

"El Rey Felipe II" [aposición especificativa]

Complemento de régimen

El complemento de régimen es desempeñado por un sintagma preposicional que cumple dicha función cuando el verbo que lo antecede rige una preposición: depender de, atreverse a, contar con, insistir en, etc. 

"La decisión [depende NGV] [de él. CR]"

El complemento de régimen a diferencia de un complemento circunstancial no puede suprimirse.

Complemento predicativo

1. obligatorio (con verbos copulativos: ser, estar, parecer) "Juan [es NGV] [alto. COMP PRED OBLIG]"

2. subjetivo "La mesa [quedó NGV] [manchada. COMP PRED SUBJ]"

3. objetivo "Ella [llamó NGV] [mentiroso COMP PRED OBLIG] [al hombre. CD]"

El complemento predicativo es siempre llevado a cabo por ADJ o SUS.

CD siempre puede ser reemplazado por "lo".

CI siempre puede ser reemplazado por "le".

Perífrasis verbal

1. de infinitivo

a) incoativas (acción que comienza)

b) terminativas "dejó de leer."

c) de intención "quiero llegar."

d) reiterativas "volvió a llover."

e) obligatorias "tiene que terminar."

f) hipotéticas "debe de temer"

g) modales: poder (posibilidad, habilidad), querer (voluntad), soler (hábito)

2. de gerundio

3. de participio

Construcciones no personales

1. Construcción de infinitivo: reemplaza SUS; puede desempeñarse como SUJ, CD, CI, termino de PRE, complemento de PRE.

2. Construcción de participio: reemplaza ADJ; puede desempeñarse como MD, o complemento PRED.

3. Construcción de gerundio: reemplaza ADV; se desempeña com CIRC.

Phonetics and Phonology I: Program 2011

Unit 1

• Introduction to the study of Phonetics and Phonology. R.P. the concept of standard usage.
• Schwa.
• The phonetic value of "ed" suffixes.
  

Introduction to the study of Phonetics and Phonology. R.P. the concept of standard usage.

Once we are introduced to the study of Phonetics and Phonology, we come across different concepts, theory and other matters that we should know. Thus, one of the main points the first chapter of the book by Peter Roach is concerned about is the reason why it is necessary to learn a theorical context about Phonetics and Phonology. The answer that arises is that we do not simply need to know phonemes work, are pronounced or such. As people who will work with the language we need to go deeper in the understanding of the mentioned theorical context.

On the other hand, since it may be one of the first steps towards the learning of Phonetics, it is worth noting the distinction between what is often confused: "accent" and "dialect". The latter refers to a variety of a language which is different from another not only in pronunciation, but also in vocabulary, grammar and word-order. On the contrary, accent is only about differences in pronunciation. 

In respect to R.P, which means received pronunciation, it has to do with the way English is pronounced and taught by teachers of English to people who learn the language as a second one. The reason why it is the model chosen is not because it sounds more pleasant or nothing of the sort, but because it is a model fully described and used in textbooks and by newsreaders in serious B.B.C channels.

Schwa

Schwa is the most frequently occurring vowel in English. It is associated to weak syllables. Concerning quality, it is a central vowel between half open and half close. Additionally, it is not articulated with much energy. Schwa can occur in initial, medial and final position. 

The phonetic value of "ed" suffixes

The "ed" suffix can occur in regular verbs and adjectives. Verbs in past simple or with its past participle are formed with "d" or "ed" added to its base. This ending is pronounced in one of three ways:

1. If the "ed" is preceded by a voiceless sound like /p-k-f-θ-s-ʃ-tʃ/ it is pronounced /t/.
2. If the "ed" is preceded by a voiced sound like /b-g-v-ð-l-m-n-ŋ-z-ʒ-dʒ/ a vowel, diphthong or triphthong, then the "ed" is pronounced /d/.
3. If the "ed" is preceded by the sound of /t/ or /d/ it is pronounced /ɪd/.

Unit 2

• The production of speech sounds. Articulators above the larynx.
• Semivowels /j/and /w/.
• Phoneme sequence and syllable structure.
  

The production of speech sounds. Articulators above the larynx

We have a large set of muscles that can produce changes in the shape of the vocal tract. The muscles in the chest produce the air flow that is needed for almost all speech sounds; the muscles in the larynx produce different modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth. After passing through the larynx, the air goes through the vocal tract which ends at the mouth and nostrils.

There are seven articulators above the larynx, which are:

• The pharynx: It is a tube that begins above the larynx and whose top is divided in two parts. One part is the back of the mouth and the other is the way through the nasal cavity.
• The soft palate: It allows the air to pass through the nose or through the mouth. The sounds /k/, /g/ and /ŋ/ are made by making use of this articulator. They are called velar sounds.
• The hard palate: It is a curved surface in the upper part of the mouth.
• The alveolar ridge: It is a surface covered with little ridges situated between the teeth and the hard palate. There are sounds called alveolar which are made by the tongue touching this place, which are /t-d-n/.
• The tongue: It is the most important articulator because it can be moved to many different places. We divide the tongue into: tip, blade, front, center, back and root.
• The teeth: They are located immediately behind the lips. Sounds produced with the tongue touching the teeth are called "dental": /θ-ð/
• The lips: They are very important in speech. They can be pressed together as for /p-b/ or brought into contact with the teeth as for /f-v/ or rounded for vowels like /uː/. Sounds made with the lips pressed together are called "bilabial", and those with the lower lip making contact with the upper teeth are called "labio-dental".

Semivowels  /j/ and /w/

The sounds /j/ and /w/ are generally called semivowels by many authors. However, some others call them approximates, but what is important to bear in mind is that they are phonetically like vowels and phonologically like consonants.

From the phonetic point of view the articulator of /j/ is practically the same as that of  /iː/, but it is very short. In the same way /w/ is similar to /uː/. Phonologically, we say that /j/ and /w/ are regarded as consonants. In order to illustrate this we can show that words beginning with any of these sounds take the article "a" as opposed to the ones that begin with vowels which take "an". 

The place of articulation for /j/ is in the palate, so it is palatal and /w/ is bilabial.

Phoneme sequence and syllable structure

In every language we find that there are restrictions on the sequences of phonemes. For example, no English word begins with the consonant sequence of "zbf" and no word ends with the sequence of a smiling "a" plus an "h". To say more, no word begins with more than three consonants and no word ends with more than five consonants.

The syllable structure has two parts. One is what we call onset and the other is what we call coda. Onset is the sound before the center of the syllable and coda is the sound after it.

If we break down the onset part we will learn concepts like

• Zero onset (if the first syllable begins with a vowel) /ɔːðə/ /aʊə/
• Initial consonants (if the first syllable begins with a consonant)
• Pre-initial (when a word begins with /s/) /spi:k/
• Post-initial (when a word begins with a consonant plus any sound of the set /l-r-w-j/ ) /pleɪ/

As well as for the breakdown of the onset part, we can do the same with the coda part.

• Zero coda (there is no final consonant at the end of the us word: know /nəʊ/)
• Final consonant (when there is a final consonant: stop /stɒp/)
• Pre-final (the final consonant is preceded by another consonant: post /pəʊst/)
• Post-final (It happens when there is a three-consonant cluster and any word of the set /s-z-t-d-θ/ is preceded by two consonants; pre-final and final consonant: helped /helpt/; seventh /sevənθ/)

The English syllable nay have the following maximum phonological structure:

Unit 3

• Vowels and consonants. The cardinal vowel system.
• The structure of a syllable.
• Symbols and transcription; phonemic and phonetic transcription.

Vowels and consonants. The cardinal vowel system

The most common distinction between vowels and consonants is made from the way they are produced, and therefore we can say that vowels are produced in such a way that there is no obstruction of the air coming from the lungs as it passes through the vocal tract. Consonants, on the other hand, are produced with the air undergoing different sorts of obstruction in its way through the vocal tract.

But as there are some cases of uncertainty, there is another way of distinguishing English sounds, which is by looking at the different contexts and positions in which particular sounds can occur. Studying sounds in this way has shown that there are two groups of sounds with quite different patterns of distribution and these two groups are those of vowels and consonants.

Once the distinction can be seen, it is necessary to know in what ways vowels differ from each others; thus, the first point to consider is the shape and position of the tongue by describing two things: first, the vertical distance between the tongue and the palate, and second, the part of the tongue which is raised highest. In other words, the tongue height, frontness and backness.

In addition, it is worth noting another point which rather than the differences between vowels, it has to do with quality. This is lip-rounding, and there are considered three shapes that the lips can take: rounded (as in "u"), spread (as in "i") and neutral (as in the sound people do when hesitating "er").

On a different note, cardinal vowels are vowels from no particular language. They are standard reference system that represents the range of vowels that the human apparatus can make. They are developed for the sake of classifying the vowels used in a particular language. They show extremes of vowel quality.

The structure of a syllable

Unit 2; point C

Symbols and transcription; phonemic and phonetic transcription

There are differences between phonemic symbols and the phonetics' ones. The former do not have to indicate precise phonetic quality, whereas the latter can give much more accurate details and information.

One advantage of the phonemic method is that it is quick and easy to learn. You can make use of phonemic symbols to transcribe either from a dictation or from a written text. However, the disadvantage is that as you continue to learn more about phonetics you become able to hear a lot of sound differences that you had not been aware of before. These differences cannot be displayed by phonemic symbols but by phonetics' ones.

A phonetic transcription containing a lot of information about the exact quality of the sounds would be called a narrow phonetic transcription, whereas one with only a little more information that a phonetic transcription would be called broad phonetic transcription.

Unit 4

• Manner and place of articulation.
• Voicing and consonants. Respiration and voicing.
• Phonology; the study of the Phonetic system. Phoneme sequences and syllable structure.

F

Voicing and Consonants. Respiration and Voicing

All speech sounds are made with some movement of air. The normal way for producing this air flow is by making use of some of the air stored in the lungs. Therefore, as the rib cage moves upwards, the lungs expand by taking air, and when you allow the rib cage to return to its position, the air expelled can be used for producing speech sounds.

Speech sounds are made by obstructing the air flow in some way. One place where we can make such obstruction is in the larynx, by bringing the vocal folds close to each other. If the folds vibrate we will hear the sound we call voicing.

Furthermore, as the larynx is, let's say the motor of voicing, it is worth giving further explanation about what it is. The larynx's structure is made of two large hollow cartilages which are attached to the top of the trachea. This structure makes the shape of a box inside of which there are two think flaps of muscle called vocal folds. At the back, these folds are attached to a pair of small cartilages called arytinoid cartilages.

If these cartilages move, the vocal folds will move too, producing a very complex range of changes in their position that are important in speech. There are four recognizable states of the vocal folds:

• Wide part: It is the state the vocal folds are for common breathing and usually during voiceless sounds.
• Narrow glottis: When air passes through the glottis while it is narrowed, the result is a fricative sound like that of whispered vowel.
• Position for vocal vibration: When the edges of the vocal folds are touching each other, or nearly touching, the air passing through the glottus will contain vibration. When it happens, little air escapes pushing the vocal folds apart and as the air flow quickly past the edges of the vocals folds, these are brought together again.
• Vocal folds tightly closed: The vocal folds can be firmly pressed together so that air cannot pass between them. When this happens in speech we call it glottal stop.

Phonology: the study of the phonemic system. Phoneme sequence and syllable structure

Any teacher of English as a second language must be able to diagnose the pronunciation errors made by the students, and to give them means of correcting said errors. This is only possible by having both a theorical and a practical knowledge of phonetics, or in other words th phonemic system.

In spoken English there may be many slight different realizations of the phonemes, but the most important thing for communication is that we have to be able to make use of the full set of phonemes. Therefore it is helpful for learners of English to know broadly the English phoneme inventory.

Unit 5

• The Phoneme. Complementary distribution and free variation. Suprasegmental phonology.
• Syllabic consonants. Combinations of syllabic consonants.
• Styles of pronunciation.
  

The Phoneme. Complementary distribution and free variation. Suprasegmental phonology

The phoneme directory is an abstract set of units as the basis of our speech. These units are called phonemes and the complete set of them is called phonetic system.

A phoneme is the smallest unit capable of producing a change in meaning. However, sometimes we can pronounce one phoneme in different ways without changing the meaning. When this is possible we deal with allophones, and the word that has two realizations is said to be in free variation. One example of this is the word "bad", which normally is pronounced with a voiceless /b/, but when pronounced emphatically it is uttered with full voicing and the meaning does not change.

There are some other instances in which a phoneme has two realizations, but they are not interchangeable. In other words, a sound cannot occur in the place of the other. For example, there is a /t/ in the word "tea" and in the word "eat", but in the first case the /t/ is unaspirated, while in the other it is aspirated. In both cases the phoneme is /t/ but they cannot switch around. Therefore we say that these sounds are in complementary distribution.

In regard with suprasegmental phonology, we can say that there are many contrasts between sounds that are not only the results of difference between phonemes. Stress and intonation are also important. For example, if we pronounce the word "import" with a stress in the first syllable we treat that word as a noun but in the case when the stress is put in the second syllable, we deal with a verb. Another way of showing contrast between sounds is by intonation. In the word "right" a raising voice while pronouncing it means that we are inviting our listener to answer or continue with what he or she is saying, but if such word has a falling voice, the word is interpreted as a confirmation.

Syllabic consonants. Combinations of syllabic consonants
There are some syllables where no vowel is found. When this occurs we find /l-r-m-n-ŋ/ as the center of the syllable.

Syllables with the sound /l/ as the center are the most noticeable examples of syllable consonants. For example /bɒtl/ /lisn/ /bætl/ /kʌpl/ .

Styles of pronunciation

When we speak we do not always speak in the same way, but we use different styles of pronunciation. It is difficult to draw a line between styles of pronunciation, yet we can divide the pronunciation into broad groups.

• formal which is used for specific occasions such as a recitation or in a church.
• unhurried colloquial which is clear, slow and it is the style that appears in dictionaries. It may include elisions and assimilations.
• informal colloquial: it is a rapid style that results of a series of modifications of the ideal forms. These are elisions and assimilation as well. For example, assimilation of d/ to /n/ in good night  /gudnait/ .

Unit 6

• Stop or plosive consonants
• The larynx; the vocal folds
• Writing systems; weakness of English orthography

Stop or plosive consonants

English has six plosive consonants: /p-t-k-b-d-g/ All six plosives can occur at initial, medial or final position. This kind of consonant is produced in four phases.

closure phase: it happens when one articulator is moved against another in order to make a stricture that allows no air to escape.
• hold phase: the articulators remain pressed together, so as the air cannot escape it is compressed.
• release phase: the articulators move apart in order to allow the air to escape
• post-release phase: a sound called plosion can be heard.

For example:
initial position: pop-time-car
medial position: attack-adore-appear
final position: stop-cook-act

The larynx: the vocal folds

The larynx's structure is made of two large hollow cartilages which are attached to the top of the trachea. This structure makes a shape of a box inside of which there are two thick flaps of muscle called vocal folds. At the back they are attached to a pair of small cartilages called arytinoid cartilages.

If these cartilages move, the vocal folds will move producing a very complex range of changes in their position that are important in speech. There are four easily recognizable states of the vocal folds:

• wide part: It is the state in which the vocal folds are for common breathing and usually during voiceless consonants.
• narrow glottis: when the air passes through the glottis when it is narrowed the result is a fricative sounds.
• position for vocal fold vibration: when the edges of the vocal folds are touching each other or nearly touching the air passing through the glottis will cause vibration. When this happens a little air escapes pushing the vocal folds apart and as the air flow quickly past the edges of the vocal folds, the folds are brought together again.
• vocal folds tightly closed: the vocal folds can be firmly pressed together so that the air cannot pass between them. When this happens in speech we call it glottal stop.

Writing systems; weakness of English orthography

We can find inconsistencies between English sounds and English spelling, even though it is stated that a writing system should contain one graphic symbol for each phoneme in the language. This is why English has weaknesses in its orthography.

However, although no writing system is perfect, some languages do a better job in that specific area. Spanish, for example, has a very direct correlation between sounds and graphic symbols.

The reason why English has not a clear correlation between sounds and spelling is because the written its form has not changed, but the pronunciation has been changing over the time.

Unit 7

• English fricative and affricative consonants; their production.
• Long and short vowels. Classification of vowels.
• Fortis and lenis.

English fricative and affricative consonants; their production.

Fricatives are consonants with the characteristic the when they are produced, air escapes through s small passage and makes a hissing sound. This sort of consonants are continuant, which means that you can continue making them without interruption as long as you have enough air in the lungs.

There are four voiced sounds /v-ð-z-ʒ/ and five voiceless sounds which are /f-θ-s-ʃ-h/

Affricatives are rather complex consonants. They begin as plosives and end as fricatives. There are only two affricatives which are the voiced /dʒ/ and the voiceless /tʃ/.

Now, concerning the classification of the fricative consonants, we say that:
• /f-v/ are labiodental. The lower lip makes contact with the upper teeth.  
• /ð-θ/ are dental. The tongue touches the inside of the upper teeth. For example /θʌmb/ /fɑːðə/

• /s-z/ are alveolar. The tongue touches the alveolar ridge, and the air escapes through a narrow passage along the center of the tongue. For example /zɪp/ /sɪp/

• /ʃ-ʒ/ are palato-alveolar. The place of articulation is partly palatal, partly alveolar. The tongue is in contact with an area slightly further back than for /s/. For example /ʃɪp/ /meʒə/

• /h/ is glottal. The friction noise is between the folds. For example /əhed/

Long and short vowels. Classification of vowels.

In English there are seven short vowels and five long vowels. The latter tend to be longer than the first, but the difference is not only length but also quality.

Graphically, the symbols for long vowels consist of one vowel symbol plus two dots, but as the difference between short and long vowels is not only length, it we omitted the two dots the vowel symbols would still be all different from each other. Therefore it's important to know that the length mark made of two dots is used not because it is essential but because it helps learners to remember the length difference.
The short vowels are:  /ɪ-e-æ-ʌ-ɒ-ʊ-ə/

  











• /ɪ/ It's a front, half close vowel. The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate and the tonthe height is near the half close position.
• /e/ It's a front vowel between the half-close and half-open.

• /æ/ It's a front vowel between the half-open and open.

• /ʌ/ It's a central vowel and the tongue height is more open than half open.

• /ɒ/ It's a back vowel between half open and open.

• /ʊ/

• /ə/

Grammar I: Notes 2011; Syntax

Classification of Sentences

The Simple Sentence

It consists of just on main clause that has one finite verb, although it may have other verb phrases that contain other verb forms. For example: "the dog barking the neighbors in ownless."

The Compound Sentence

It consists of two or more main clauses that may be joined in one of three ways:

1. With coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, yet, for: "She doesn't know how to drive, but she will eventually learn."; "I won't have money til next week, yet I'll get by somehow or other". Sometimes conjunctions are used in pairs to link clauses or smaller grammatical units that are balanced. These types of conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions: either...or; neither...or; not only...but also; both... and; as...as.
2. With a semicolon (;): Semicolons are used when two independent clauses are linked with no connecting words: "I've changed my mind; I will stay in home."
3. With a semicolon and a connector: Connectors, often called conjunctive adverbs, are used to connect main clauses to make compound sentences. The principal connectors are: however, therefore, otherwise, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, hence, also, thus, consequently, besides, accordingly, meanwhile, etc.

The Complex Sentence

It usually connects ideas of unequal importance. They are formed by joining an independent clause with a subordinate clause: "I wanted to sleep when everybody was making noise."

Clause

Subordinate clauses have different functions when related with main clauses. There are three types of subordinate clauses that differ in their functioning:

• Adjectival clauses

• Noun clauses

• Adverbial clauses

Adjectival Clauses: They are used in the same way as a single-word adjective, describing and modifying nouns. It comes immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it describes.
Relative clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which, that and the relative adverbs where, when, and why. The noun modifying by an adjective phrase or clause is called antecedent.

"I saw a house that was very pretty."

Relative clauses are either defining or non-defining. A defining clause cannot be omitted from the sentence without changing the meaning. A non-definining clause gives additional information, but does not define the antecedent; it is enclosed by commas. 

*The relative pronoun that is used only in defining clauses, and along with the other relative pronouns except of whose, might be omitted if possible.

> Reduction of relative clauses.
There are three common ways to reduce and adjective clause beginning with who, which,  or that (used as subject of the sentence) to a phrase.

1. Omitting the relative pronoun and the be form of the verb: "The woman (who is) cooking is my mother"; "the dog (which is) barking outside belongs to her"; "The country (that is) in crisis in Greece."
2. In clauses that do not contain a form of be, it is usually possible to omit the pronoun and change the verb to its ing form: "The person (who knows/knowing) how to use a computer will get the job."; "The book (that has/having) 100 pages ins mine"
3. Some adjective clauses can be reduced to appositive phrases. "Combat sports, (which are) my favorites ones, are not as popular as other sports in my country"; "My brother, (who is) aged 13, plays soccer in B.S."

Adverbial Clauses: They have a large array of functions within the sentence, which answer different questions, such as when, how, why.

> Time: Before, after, until, when, whenever, as, since, till, as soon as, etc: "After you leave, check if you have everything you need."

> Place: Where, whenever, anywhere, everywhere, elsewhere: "I like where we went yesterday."

> Reason: Because, since, as, given: "Since I know you too well, I imagine what you re going to do."

> Purpose: So that, on order that: "I won't take a nap, so that I go to bed early tonight."

> Manner: As, as if, as though, like, the way: "Feel as if this were you home."

> Condition: As long as, in case, provided that, unless, whether or not, if: "I'll do it provided (that) you pay me."; "I'll do it whether he pays me or not."; "As long as he pays me, I'll do it."

> Result: So...that; such...that: "He was so tall that he could change a bulb without a ladder."

> Contrast: Although, though, even though, while, in spite of the fact that: "I love listening to music although I don't have much time to do it."

Noun Clauses: It is used in the same way as a single-word noun. It consist of a subordinate conjunction, a subject an a verb. They occur frequently when we present out own thoughts or report on the ideas of others. Noun clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions: that sub, what, how, when, whether, if, where, why.

>Functions of noun clauses
• subject of a sentence: "what she wears is never old-fashion."; "what they have done is unfair."
• object of a sentence: "you reap what you sow."; "they will say that it was not their fault."

• object of a preposition: "have you thought of how you'll do it."; "I don't believe in what the book says."
• apposition to a noun: "the condition, that we have to pay him, is not fair."; "the likelihood, that it will rain, is high."
• complement of a verb: "the kid became what he wanted to be."
• adjective complement: "I'm sure that you can do it"; "she's not aware that her behavior will make her regret."

*That can be omitted when it introduces a noun clause as object of a verb, or in other words, when it is not subject of said clause.

Conjunctions

It is a word that joins together other words, phrases and sentences. There are two general clauses of conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

> Coordinating Conjunctions: They join sentences of equal importance or two words that stand in the same relation to some other word in the sentence. There are different kinds of conjunctions:

• Cumulatives: They add one statement to another (and, both...and, not only...but)

• Alternatives: They represent a choice between two options (or, otherwise, either...or)

• Adversatives: They contrast one statement with another (but, yet, however, nevertheless)

• Illative: They infer one statement from another (so, therefore, consequently)

• Explanatory: They explain one statement by means of another (for)

> Subordinating Conjunctions: They join together sentences of unequal value. The most commonly used Subordinating conjunctions are: that, where, whom, while, before, until, if, after, since, because, (al)though, unless, as.

There are other connectives, which are not conjunctions, that are used to introduce subordinating clauses. These connectives are relative pronouns or relative adverbs: that, which, who, where, etc: "He's the man who I want to see."

Conditional Sentences

> Zero Conditional: It refers to conditions that are always true, with automatic or habitual result.

• if + present simple, present simple;"If the moon gets closer to the Earth, the tides rise."

> First Conditional: It expresses possible conditions, probable results as well as other functions as threats, warnings, offers, etc.

• if + present simple, will + bare infinitive; "If you don't harry up, they will leave without you."
• If can be replaced by unless or in case of.
• Will can be replaced by can, should; bare infinitive; going to.
• The present simple in the "if" clause can be replaced by the present perfect.

> Second conditional: It expresses a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In same cases, the condition is possible in theory but improbable in practice.

• if + past simple, would + bare infinitive: "If petrol were free, I would drive up to Alaska."
• In the if clause, when there is a negative verb, then if can be replaced by unless.
• Would can be replaced by could or might.

> Third Conditional: It expresses a imaginary situation about the past; actions that happened in a way which is impossible to change now.

• if + past perfect, would + past perfect: "If I had known she was an spy, I wouldn't have fallen into the trap."

Grammar I: Notes 2011; Reported Speech

Have sth Done

• This structure is used to say we arrange for someone to do sth for us: "I had my hair cut."

• It is also used to express that sth unpleasant happened to somebody: "She had her jewelery stolen."

• In informal register the verb "get" can be used instead of "have": "I'm getting my computer repaired."

Reported Speech

We can report people's words by using direct speech or reported speech. While the latter expresses the exact meaning of what somebody said, but not the exact words, direct speech quotes the exactly the same words somebody said.

• Out-of-date reporting: Someone's words are repeated a long time after they were said. In this case, the introductory verb is in the past simple and most of the other tenses shift one tense back. Thus, present simple becomes past simple, past simple becomes past perfect and so forth.
• Up-to-date reporting: Someone's words are reported a short time after they were said, and the tenses can either change or remain the same.

> When this/these are used in time expressions, they change to that/those.

> When this/these and that/those work as demonstrative adjectives, the change to the.

> When this/these and that/those work as pronouns, the change to it or they/them.

Certain modal verbs change as follows

> will/shall ➝ would
> may ➝ might
> can ➝ could

> can ➝ could / would be able to (fut per)

> must ➝ must / had to (obligation)

> shall ➝ should (asking for permission)

Would, could, might, should, ought to, had better and musn't do not change in reported speech. Additionally, must does not change when it expresses logical assumption.

Verb Tenses

> Verb tenses and time expressions change:

1. Out-of-date reporting

2. When we consider what the speaker says to be untrue

> Verb tenses can either change or remain the same:

1. Up-to-date reporting

2. General truth or laws of nature

> Verb tenses remain the same

1. When the introductory verb is in the present, future or present perfect.

Reported Questions

> They are introduced with ask, inquire, wonder or want to now.

> When the question begins with a wh question word, the reported question is introduced with the some question word.

> When the question begins with an auxiliary or modal verb, the reported question is introduced with if or whether.> Inserts (fillings) and question marks are omitted.

Reported commands, requests, suggestions

> Commands or instructions ➝ order or tell [sb to do sth]: "turn down the music" he told them; "he ordered them to turn down the music."

> Requests ➝ ask or beg [sb to do sth]: he said to them,"please, turn down the music."; "he asked them to turn down the music."

> Suggestions ➝ suggest [ing form] [that sb (should)] [bare inf]: "perhaps we could eat earlier" I said; "I suggested eating earlier."

Introductory Verb

> Verb + to-ing

agree

offer

promise [1]

refuse

threaten [1]

> Verb + sb + to-ing

advise [1]

ask

beg

command

invite

order

remind [1]

warn [1]

> Verb + ing-form (gerund)

admit [1]

accuse sb of [1]

apologize for [1]

boast about/of [1]

complain to sb of [1]

deny [1]

insist on [1]

suggest [1]

> Verb + that

admit [2]

advise [2]

boast [2]

complain [2]

deny [2]

explain

exclaim/remark

insist [2]

promise [2]

remind [2]

suggest that sb (should)

threaten [2]

warn [2]

> Verb + sb + having done

admit [3]

accuse [2]

apologize for [2]

deny [3]

> My doing

insist [3] "she insisted on my doing my homework"

Reporting a dialogue

and

as

but

since

while

then

adding that

and (sb) added that

because

and then (sb) went on to say