Grammar I: Notes 2011; Syntax

Classification of Sentences

The Simple Sentence

It consists of just on main clause that has one finite verb, although it may have other verb phrases that contain other verb forms. For example: "the dog barking the neighbors in ownless."

The Compound Sentence

It consists of two or more main clauses that may be joined in one of three ways:

1. With coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, yet, for: "She doesn't know how to drive, but she will eventually learn."; "I won't have money til next week, yet I'll get by somehow or other". Sometimes conjunctions are used in pairs to link clauses or smaller grammatical units that are balanced. These types of conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions: either...or; neither...or; not only...but also; both... and; as...as.
2. With a semicolon (;): Semicolons are used when two independent clauses are linked with no connecting words: "I've changed my mind; I will stay in home."
3. With a semicolon and a connector: Connectors, often called conjunctive adverbs, are used to connect main clauses to make compound sentences. The principal connectors are: however, therefore, otherwise, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, hence, also, thus, consequently, besides, accordingly, meanwhile, etc.

The Complex Sentence

It usually connects ideas of unequal importance. They are formed by joining an independent clause with a subordinate clause: "I wanted to sleep when everybody was making noise."

Clause

Subordinate clauses have different functions when related with main clauses. There are three types of subordinate clauses that differ in their functioning:

• Adjectival clauses

• Noun clauses

• Adverbial clauses

Adjectival Clauses: They are used in the same way as a single-word adjective, describing and modifying nouns. It comes immediately after or as close as possible to the noun it describes.
Relative clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which, that and the relative adverbs where, when, and why. The noun modifying by an adjective phrase or clause is called antecedent.

"I saw a house that was very pretty."

Relative clauses are either defining or non-defining. A defining clause cannot be omitted from the sentence without changing the meaning. A non-definining clause gives additional information, but does not define the antecedent; it is enclosed by commas. 

*The relative pronoun that is used only in defining clauses, and along with the other relative pronouns except of whose, might be omitted if possible.

> Reduction of relative clauses.
There are three common ways to reduce and adjective clause beginning with who, which,  or that (used as subject of the sentence) to a phrase.

1. Omitting the relative pronoun and the be form of the verb: "The woman (who is) cooking is my mother"; "the dog (which is) barking outside belongs to her"; "The country (that is) in crisis in Greece."
2. In clauses that do not contain a form of be, it is usually possible to omit the pronoun and change the verb to its ing form: "The person (who knows/knowing) how to use a computer will get the job."; "The book (that has/having) 100 pages ins mine"
3. Some adjective clauses can be reduced to appositive phrases. "Combat sports, (which are) my favorites ones, are not as popular as other sports in my country"; "My brother, (who is) aged 13, plays soccer in B.S."

Adverbial Clauses: They have a large array of functions within the sentence, which answer different questions, such as when, how, why.

> Time: Before, after, until, when, whenever, as, since, till, as soon as, etc: "After you leave, check if you have everything you need."

> Place: Where, whenever, anywhere, everywhere, elsewhere: "I like where we went yesterday."

> Reason: Because, since, as, given: "Since I know you too well, I imagine what you re going to do."

> Purpose: So that, on order that: "I won't take a nap, so that I go to bed early tonight."

> Manner: As, as if, as though, like, the way: "Feel as if this were you home."

> Condition: As long as, in case, provided that, unless, whether or not, if: "I'll do it provided (that) you pay me."; "I'll do it whether he pays me or not."; "As long as he pays me, I'll do it."

> Result: So...that; such...that: "He was so tall that he could change a bulb without a ladder."

> Contrast: Although, though, even though, while, in spite of the fact that: "I love listening to music although I don't have much time to do it."

Noun Clauses: It is used in the same way as a single-word noun. It consist of a subordinate conjunction, a subject an a verb. They occur frequently when we present out own thoughts or report on the ideas of others. Noun clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions: that sub, what, how, when, whether, if, where, why.

>Functions of noun clauses
• subject of a sentence: "what she wears is never old-fashion."; "what they have done is unfair."
• object of a sentence: "you reap what you sow."; "they will say that it was not their fault."

• object of a preposition: "have you thought of how you'll do it."; "I don't believe in what the book says."
• apposition to a noun: "the condition, that we have to pay him, is not fair."; "the likelihood, that it will rain, is high."
• complement of a verb: "the kid became what he wanted to be."
• adjective complement: "I'm sure that you can do it"; "she's not aware that her behavior will make her regret."

*That can be omitted when it introduces a noun clause as object of a verb, or in other words, when it is not subject of said clause.

Conjunctions

It is a word that joins together other words, phrases and sentences. There are two general clauses of conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

> Coordinating Conjunctions: They join sentences of equal importance or two words that stand in the same relation to some other word in the sentence. There are different kinds of conjunctions:

• Cumulatives: They add one statement to another (and, both...and, not only...but)

• Alternatives: They represent a choice between two options (or, otherwise, either...or)

• Adversatives: They contrast one statement with another (but, yet, however, nevertheless)

• Illative: They infer one statement from another (so, therefore, consequently)

• Explanatory: They explain one statement by means of another (for)

> Subordinating Conjunctions: They join together sentences of unequal value. The most commonly used Subordinating conjunctions are: that, where, whom, while, before, until, if, after, since, because, (al)though, unless, as.

There are other connectives, which are not conjunctions, that are used to introduce subordinating clauses. These connectives are relative pronouns or relative adverbs: that, which, who, where, etc: "He's the man who I want to see."

Conditional Sentences

> Zero Conditional: It refers to conditions that are always true, with automatic or habitual result.

• if + present simple, present simple;"If the moon gets closer to the Earth, the tides rise."

> First Conditional: It expresses possible conditions, probable results as well as other functions as threats, warnings, offers, etc.

• if + present simple, will + bare infinitive; "If you don't harry up, they will leave without you."
• If can be replaced by unless or in case of.
• Will can be replaced by can, should; bare infinitive; going to.
• The present simple in the "if" clause can be replaced by the present perfect.

> Second conditional: It expresses a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In same cases, the condition is possible in theory but improbable in practice.

• if + past simple, would + bare infinitive: "If petrol were free, I would drive up to Alaska."
• In the if clause, when there is a negative verb, then if can be replaced by unless.
• Would can be replaced by could or might.

> Third Conditional: It expresses a imaginary situation about the past; actions that happened in a way which is impossible to change now.

• if + past perfect, would + past perfect: "If I had known she was an spy, I wouldn't have fallen into the trap."