In the north-western part of Europe there are two large islands and many other small ones. One of the two large islands (the largest) is Great Britain and the other one is Ireland.
There's a sense of attachment and union within families in the UK, but in comparison with other parts of the world it is rather weak. As a matter of fact, it is uncommon to hold family gatherings with people that are outside the household unit. Generally, a family unit will be made up of the parents and the children, and very seldomly will the grandparents live with the first.
However, this stereotypical family structure is little by little becoming less common as now roughly 40% of births happen outside marriage and single-parenthood is a phenomenon very present nowadays.
[1.8] Geographical identity
There's practically no sense of attachment to the place of birth, but local pride does exist if the place when people live is nice and pleasant (regardless of whether they were born there or not). What is more common is to come across with a feel of identity associated with a county. People from Liverpool are proud to belong to that city; people from Newcastle feel that way too, as well as people form Manchester, London, Glasgow, etc. Going beyond the limits of cities, there's a division in England between northerners and southerners. The former see themselves as a more honest and warmer-hearted than the unfriendly southerners.
[1.9] Class
Social classes in Britain can be divided into three different groups: the working class, the middle-class, and then the high-class people. There are clear differences among them which range from daily habits, the food they eat, topics of conversation, pastimes, sports, to values and demeanor.
However, the one factor that actually brings these social classes apart is accent. The high-class people's accent is called Received Pronunciation and is considered to be the standard accent of the UK. The lower classes use a varying number of regional non-standard accents.
In addition to all this, another thing worthy of consideration is a phenomenon that's come along over the past few decades: the inverted snobbery. This is a tendency in which people from the high classes act or speak like the working class does on the grounds that they feel that in that way they would come across as more honest and all around better people.
[1.10] Men and women
Britain adheres to the tendency of putting women on the same level as men, but the fact the it is illegal to discriminate on the basis of sex is p2roof that this does happen. However, often unconsciously, women are expected to fulfill roles and behave in ways that differ with what men are expected to. For example, no one will even notice if a man looks untidy, but when it comes to women it's not very well seen. Also, it feels kinda awkward if a man cries, but not quite so if a women does.
[1.11] Religious and political identity
With the obvious exception of Northern Ireland and some people in Scotland, neither religion nor politics have important implications in people's sense of identity. They just don't care who you support or what you worship. Not even in a proposal of marriage or friendship does religion have in important role.
[1.12] Social en everyday contacts
For many people networking is an important part of their identity and their lives. Having social connections with people with the same interests, favorite sports or pastimes is quite important for them.
[1.13] Identity in Northern Ireland
There's a clear-cut division in Northern Ireland's society. On the one hand there is half a nation who want s Ireland to remain part of the UK, and on the other side there are the people who support the idea of Ireland being part of the Irish Republic.
In this setting it's rare for people from the opposing communities talk with each other. Kids are sent to different schools and it is on the university that many times they cross paths for the first time.
[1.14] Being British
Most British people would much rather feel a patriotic sentiment towards their nation than towards Britain. This has been accounted for in many pools, like, for example, one conducted in 2002 in which almost half of the respondents said that the national flag had little, if any, importance to them.
However, there's one moment in particular when British patriotism is arose, and this is when their identity is threatened from the outside. For example through the activities of the European Union.
Attitudes
[1.15] Stereotypes and change
[1.16] English versus British
[1.17] Multiculturalism
[1.18] Conservatism
[1.19] Being different
[1.20] Love of nature
[1.21] Love of animals
[1.22] Public spiritedness and amateurism
[1.23] Privacy and sex
[2.1] The Roman Period (43-410)
Even though the Romans occupied Britannia (most of what nowadays is England and Wales) for almost four hundred years, they uncharacteristically left very little behind. They succeeded, however, in imposing their ways over one half of the Celt population. The other half, I mean the Scots and the Picts, who by the way were enemies of the Romans, lived up in Scotland so they were off the scope of the Roman power and influence. The group of Celts that did experience the influence of the Romans are called Britons, and the ones that didn't are called Gaels.
[2.2] The Germanic invasions (410-1066)
The first Germanic invasion was carried out in the fifth century by the Angles and the Saxons, and the south-east of the country was soon part of their kingdom. By the end of the sixth century their way of life predominated in nearly all of present-day England, especially in the countryside where they had a greater influence.
Another wave of Germanic invasions were executed in the eighth century by invaders from Scandinavia known as Vikings, and via armed conflict the north and east of the country was all they were able to conquer.
At this stage, with the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings having already made Christianity their religion, and with not many cultural differences, they soon were united under a same political state, which was the United Kingdom.
[2.3] The medieval period (1066-1458)
In 1066 the Normans invaded and became the rulers of England. Then the Norman soldiers were given the ownership of pieces of land as well as the people living on it. This later triggered the foundation of a hierarchy-based feudal system coming all the way down from the peasants (which where the English speaking Saxons), the Normandy French-speaking lords, and the great nobles or barons, to the almighty king.
In terms of the politics in this period, in the next 250 years after the invasion the Anglo-Norman kingdom extended to parts of Ireland and to the entire territory of Wales. Only Scotland did manage to remain independent but was occasionally forced to fight for it. At the level of culture though, it was the language of the Anglo-Saxons (English) and not French the one that prevailed.
Other important events during the medieval period are:
_The survival and even the strengthening of the Welsh culture. The language and the typical song and poetry festivals were never endangered.
_The switch to the Gaelic language and culture by the The Anglo-Norman lords, even though it was prohibited.
_In spite to its independence, the gradual switch to English in Scotland.
By the end of this period, there was a division between the lowlands and the highlands. The lowlands had a lifestyle similar to that of England and the highlands practiced the Gaelic culture.
[2.4] The sixteenth century: the Tudors
By the sixteenth century the Bubonic plague had been around for three centuries, taking its toll on the the Great Britain of the time. This disease killed thousands of blue-collar workers and this weakened the ties between lords and peasants. The monarchs were favored by this and so their power increased. Also, during the Tudor dynasty (1485 - 1603) there was no longer equality in the Parliament between The Lords and the Commons because the monarchs were heavily represented by the Commons.
Additionally, other important events in this century are: Protestantism getting established in England, the exploration of America, and Shakespeare coming long and having an enormous influence in the English language.
[2.5] The seventeenth century and the Civil War
In the midst of the standardization of English in Scotland and the union of this nation with England, the tension between religion and state arose. Some kings were killed for not being Catholic enough, and funny as it may sound some others for being too Catholic. On the top of all that, ideological Protestantism in England grew as vocal detractors to Catholicism.
All this plus the conflict between the royalists and the parliamentarians led to the Civil War which the parliamentary forces won. However, once the leader of the parliamentary side took over the government of Britain and Ireland, he failed to impose his system of government.
[2.6] The eighteenth century and the industrial revolution
When the Act of Union was passed, the Scottish members of the parliament joined the English and Welsh parliament giving birth to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain." In this new setting, traces of past battles kind of showed up in the form of people supporting of the old parliamentarians, so the Whigs and the Tories came around. The Whigs were pro constitution and the Tories pro monarchy. This was the beginning of the party system in Britain.
Undoubtedly the most important event of this century was the industrial revolution, which caused millions to move from the rural areas to the cities. Most of them migrated to the northern areas of England which was the industrial center of Great Britain. In the south of England, on the other hand, was London, the business capital.
[2.7] The nineteenth century: queen Victoria
In the beginning of the nineteenth century Britain lost its authority over The United States, and was busy trying to maintain other colonies while at the same time being involved in a war against France. Nevertheless, further into that century, Britain's rule over several other colonies spread out around the world, taking all of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, large parts of Africa, and islands in the Caribbean.
Prior to this growth of the empire, colonization was a matter of commerce, but at this point in time it was seen in a different light, like if it was their destiny to control all the world. Britain's economic success triggered a sentiment of arrogance and confidence that led the British to believe it as their duty to spread their culture and civilization around the world.
Additionally, great changes in the social structure were also brought by industrialization. The holders of the power were now tradespeople and professionals, and not landowners as before. These powerful people made their riches off cheap labor by people working in horrendous conditions.
Queen Victoria: In a new era when the monarchy held very little power, the queen was regarded as a symbol of Britain's success. Her hard-working spirit won her a very good public image and was deemed as the personification of the morals of the time.
[2.8] Imperialism
[2.9] The twentieth century: the birth of the labor party
The twentieth century kicked off in Britain with a series of problems that shook the whole country. It was no longer the world's richest country, women were standing up for their rights, the army wasn't completely satisfied with some policies, and the House of Lords was struggling to survive.
By the 1920s these problems had been sorted out, but following this dramatic period, Britain started to loss control over its colonies. Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa started to act separately from Britain. Even Ireland became a independent country. At this point, the world wasn't as Britain-centered as before, and proof of this is the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 as it was resolved without Britain's participation.
On a different note, politics was also going through changes. The working class gained enough power to have a say in Britain's future, and from the 1930s to the 1980s the Trades Union Congress thrived as a political force. However, in recent years it hasn't attained that same level of success.
[2.10] The World Wars
Set 3
Political Life
[3.1] The Public Attitude to Politics
The British don't usually go so far as to say politicians are thieves, but they do look on them as dishonest and lying people. Even in a satirical way, British say that the first rule of politics is never believe anything until it's been officially denied, implying that the truth is exactly the opposite to what they claim. Furthermore, the British are generally indifferent to politics, and rarely become passionate about it. Politics is for them a boring topic of conversation. This lack of enthusiasm is reflected in the general ignorance of who they are.
[3.2] The Style of Democracy
In many aspects of life the British manage with a relatively small set of laws, and so there are few rules telling people or the government what they must or must not do. In fact, a distinctive characteristic of the English democracy is the traditional idea that people and the government should leave each other alone as much as possible, which is why people are not obliged to vote at elections. Additionally, people aren't really involved in governing or lawmaking, and the government can make drastic changes without having to ask them for it. Here democracy never meant that people were involved in the running of the country, but rather that they only had to choose who is to govern the country, and then let them get on with in.
[3.3] The Constitution
As opposed to almost all modern countries, Britain doesn't have a constitution. However, this doesn't mean that it doesn't have rules, principles or procedures, but that there's not a single written document which can be considered as the highest law.
Instead, the principles, procedures and people's rights come from other sources. Some of them are written down in laws agreed by Parliament, some have been spoken and written down (for example judgments made in a court), and some others have never been written down at all, but are effectively set by custom and practice.
[3.4] The style of politics
Politics in the UK is conducted in a rather informal way. Important decision are preferably made at lunch and even over some drinks rather than at official meetings. However, the parliament is run with a greater degree of formality as its members are obliged to proceed honoring some ancient traditions of procedure.
Another distinctive feature of politics in the UK is that politicians are very often willing to cooperate with one another. They see the advantages of this, and even when they support different parties they are always open to cooperate if there's mutual benefit.
[3.5] The party system
There are two big dominating parties in he UK: the Conservative party and the Labour party. A third option is the Liberal Democratic party but it hasn't been all that relevant over the last few decades, time during which the Labour party replaced the Liberals as the second most popular party. The Labour party, as opposed to the other two, was created outside the parliament when an increasing number of urban workers (proletarians) needed a political force to represent their interests.
Out of the two most important parties, the one that doesn't control the government often presents itself as an alternative government, ready to step up at any time it is needed. In order to keep up this appearance of readiness they try to look as low-drama as possible. There are more often that not internal conflicts, especially when the leading MP doesn't get to be reelected, but they don't want everybody know about such things.
[3.6] The monarchy
The monarchy hasn't been the same for very long time. Its head, the Queen, doesn't have the same kind of power she used to rule with centuries past. In fact, she has very little involvement in the decision-making of the country.
But even though the Queen has no real control over the running of the UK, there's a willingness to glorify the royal family and make it seem as if the Queen was actually the most important person in the government. There's even the custom to pretend that the country is very undemocratic and that it's "her" country rather than the "people's". Additionally, she is even *supposedly* qualified to dismiss anyone from the government, and choose anyone she likes to fulfill any kind of official duty.
So now, the question is what, then, is the Queen's role? Three roles are often mentioned. First, she's the symbolic representation of the government. She is as representative of the UK as the country's flag. Second, in the event of the transition to a dictatorial country via the passing of an undemocratic bill, she has the authority here to disapprove that law. Third, she can lead ceremonial duties on behalf of the government, allowing the real one get on with the actual job of running the country.
Now, regarding the future of the monarchy, there's nothing yet indicating that it will cease to exist any time soon. People are either vaguely in favor or indifferent towards it, and generally she's widely admired by British people.
[3.7] The government
By government people tend to understand the group of people who run the daily activities of the government, such as those who are in the Parliament. These people are known as ministers, and they usually belong to a same party. When they don't, it's agreed that people of the opposing party won't talk badly of the party at the helm of the government. The tradition of collective responsibility means that the members who don't agree with a certain decision the official government takes, must just go along with it.
[3.8] The cabinet
The cabinet is the body of government whose purpose is to make decisions about new policies. Like in other areas of the government, its members are supposed to keep up the appearance of being able to reach agreements without much trouble. Therefore when this doesn't occur, it's always kept undisclosed from the public. Another body called "cabinet office" is in charge of looking into various matters in more detail than the cabinet has time for.
[3.9] The prime minister
The Prime Minister is the most powerful person in the government, even though his superior status is somewhat purposely diminished to make it look as if the Queen is the one actually playing the starring role. He occupies the highest position on the government and so he has much more power when it comes to making decisions; he even has the power of patronage
(meaning he is entitled to fill positions in the government with people of his own choosing). Even if other members are against his actions, all of them must honor the convention of collective responsibility by consenting the Prime Minister's decisions.
[3.10] The civil service
By civil service is meant the job that the civil servants do and have been doing over the course of several governments. Unlike ministers, civil servants remain in their positions for an undefined period of time, as they have absolute job security and earn a higher salary than ministers. They're even known to exercise quite a lot of influence and control over their ministers, which, you know, makes me think there must be some truth to that belief as it's also said it is them the ones who actually govern the country.
[3.11] Central and local governments
Great Britain functions the opposite way a country such as ours does in the sense that in Britain it's the central government the one that gives the local governments powers. In the local government system we can virtually find the same structure there's in the national one. There are the Councillors (the equivalent of MPs) and government officers (the equivalent of civil servants) and there is a meeting place similar to the one the Parliament is. Local government services include public hygiene and environmental health inspection, garbage collection, the cleaning of public places, etc, and these services are founded with a special kind of tax based on the value of people's properties.
[3.12] Parliament
In a nutshell, the parliament's duty is to make new laws and discuss the activities carried out by the government. Its home is the Palace of Westminster, which has two large rooms. One belonging to the House of Lords, and the other to the House of Commons.
[3.13] The atmosphere of Parliament
The internal architecture of the building where the Parliament works at has a particular layout. It was deliberately built with two clearly separate rows of benches, which visually makes it seem as if the MPs are either for or against the government as there's no room for any sort of neutral or consensual viewpoint. Another feature of this place is that MPs don't have a desk but just a seat, and it's been built like that to allow MPs to leave and come back to their places with much more ease than if there was a desk kind of in the middle of the way. Moreover, this keeps them from taking notes and so speeches tend to be brief and succinct.
Although these and many other odd features contribute to a rather informal atmosphere, there are rules and ancient habits still at play, such as the fact that it's forbidden for MPs to address one another by their names. In its place an MP must address another MP by "the honorable member for Winchester" or "my right honorable friend."
[3.14] An MP's life
The lives of MPs are very busy. They spend more time at work than any other professional in the country and they don't get paid very much, at least in comparison with their European counterparts. MP's mornings are taken up with committee work, research, the preparation of speeches, etc. At weekends they're expected to visit their constituencies and listen to the problems of anybody who wants to see them. Occasionally, a day of work can extend all through the night and the next day without a break.
[3.15] Parliamentary business
The everyday routine of the Parliament comes down to debates about bill proposals that the members of the Commons hold, and then coming to resolutions which either accept or reject said proposals. That's the chief activity they wake up for everyday. Now, the way they express their acceptance or refusal is by walking through either the corridor of the "Ayes" or the corridor of the "Noes". Apart from this, they're also expected to investigate the government in certain areas, and this end they have the power to request the presence of certain people to answer to their questions.
[3.16] The party system in Parliament
There's like a rule between MPs and their parties in which, every now and then, the MPs have to vote the way their parties tell them to, regardless of whether they like it or not. In fact, there are people whose job is to make sure the message gets passed down from the party to the MPs. These people are called whips, and they're the reason why rebellious demeanor (not voting in accordance to their party) is very rare. However, this doesn't mean MPs are always obliged to vote what they're told to. Sometimes, they're allowed a free vote with which they can either support or go against a bill according to their own believes.
[3.17] The House of Lords
Out of the two houses that make up the Parliament, the House of Lords is the less significant and influential one. They can certainly delay a bill, but in the end they can't stop it from becoming law. So their role is more of a consultative one. In this house, bills can be discussed in more detail than the busy members of the Commons have time for.
The members of the House of Lords get a place there through the life peerage system. The life peerage system is used to find a place in public life for distinguished older politicians who no longer wish to be as busy as an MP in the Commons but still want to voice their opinions in a public forum.
The election system for political representation in the UK is fairly simple. Anyone who wants to be an MP must declare himself as a candidate in one of the constituencies. A constituency is what the country is divided into; each constituency has roughly 90,000 inhabitants. The rest of the election is even simpler. Voters go to polling stations, walk into a dark room and put on a kind of brochure a cross next to the name of the candidate they support.
Set 4
[4.1] The police and the public
There was a time, let's say, up until the mid 50s when police had a good image. A single police officer would routinely patrol down the streets of a specific neighborhood, making him a familiar face for everybody in that neighborhood. This, together with his reassuring presence and the feeling that anyone could trust a him, endeared the police to the general public.
However, later in the 60s, the police started using motorized vehicles, which meant they stopped having the same kind of interaction with the public. Then, with the phenomenon of the counterculture also in the 60s the younger population started to see the police as a symbol of everything they disliked about society. Nowadays, the police seems to have committed itself to trying to better its public relations and to that end they've reintroduced foot patrolling and are now obliged to wear name badges in order to look more human.
[4.2] Crime and criminal procedure
There's a general perception among the British that crime is increasing. However, there's no way to tell whether this perception can be validated with statistics. The one thing that's certain though is that fear for crime has indeed increased. As for criminal procedure, the police can't detain a person for more than 24 hours unless they have a special permission or they formally charge that person with a crime.
[4.3] The system of justice
A very characteristic feature of the British system of justice is that most of the cases are judged by a ordinary people and not professionals. These are just people of good reputation who are selected at random from the list of voters. Once they are requested to perform in a trial, they receive the name of Justices of Peace and form a jury of 12 JPs. When a decision as to whether an accused is to be found guilty or non-guilty, there must be an agreement among at least ten of them; otherwise, the process has to be restarted. The duty of a judge here is to act as a referee and, among other things, pronounce the sentence on those found guilty.
[4.4] The legal profession
There are two kinds of lawyers in Britain: solicitors, who deal with the public, and take care of wills, divorce papers, contracts, etc.; and barristers, whose main job is to present cases in court. Barristers enjoy a much better social status, and are perceived as more educated than solicitors. They are most of the times self-employed and have a prestige similar to that of doctors. These two different types of lawyers are very different since in their training they go through different exams and are expected to acquire a very different set of skills.
[4.5] Education: historical background
Britain was one of the last countries in Europe to really embrace education and give it the importance it deserves. But even before the government showed interest in it, prestigious educational institutions persisted. These schools and universities were mainly aimed at upper and upper-middle classes, and in this institutions people were trained to become the ruling elite.
[4.6] Modern times: the education debates
Education is what the British feel most insecure about. There have been for a long time three ongoing debates over education.
The first one concerns quality. There's a widespread feeling that British students aren't as well taught as those in other European countries. Employers even complain that new recruits don't possess the necessary basic skills such as those related with the three Rs: reading, writing and arithmetic.
Another subject of constant debate is equality. Equal opportunities in education is something the British have always placed a lot of importance on. The fact that some pupils are regarded very highly just because they go to a good school, and others who go to less prestigious ones are seen as failures, has led to the implementation of many measures intended to level off this imbalance. An example of this is that in poor areas some students are awarded with money if they pass their exams.
Freedom of choice is the third subject of discussion. It implies a limit to what the government can impose over schools. This is why a national curriculum came around so much later in Britain than in other countries, and since there have been many complaints about how rigid it was, it has now much fewer compulsory elements. This is also why as many details as possible are left up to the institutions to decide.
[4.7] Style
British schools have always been more interested in personal development rather than in training for a particular practical purpose. Also, the development of understanding and sophistication of approach is given more emphasis than the accumulation of factual knowledge. Moreover, educational institutions tend to give high priority to sports; in fact, some students with poor academic records are accepted at some universities just because they're good athletes.
[4.8] School life
All children are guaranteed free education for up to two years before reaching compulsory school age (which is at the age of 5). Once in this phase, a school day commonly starts at 9 a.m. and finishes at 3 or 4 p.m., which includes a lunch break of around 1 hour at noon. Students go to school five days a week and this makes them spend more time at school than those in other European countries.
[4.9] Public exams
[4.10] Education beyond sixteen
This is the age at which compulsory education ends. After this about a third of students start to work, while at the same time taking part-time college courses. The rest devote themselves full-time to passing an A-level exam, for which they study 2 years. Very few students with no A-level marks are granted access to a university.
Another characteristic of education beyond sixteen is that students typically live on campus. They also have to take part-time jobs in order to pay for their expenses. Universities used to forbid this but now the reality is that students can't do without some sort of income, and in fact half of them work while taking university courses.
[4.11] The open university
This is about distance education. When it started 1969 the open university courses were taught through television, radio and specially written material. These days, of course, it uses the internet. Students send their work to tutors and have attend some courses in the summer.
[4.12] Types of universities
We can distinguish a few broad university categories:
Oxbridge, which stands for Oxford and Cambridge. These two universities, as we know them, are the two foremost educational institutions in Britain. Their prestige and quality of education clearly sets them apart from the rest, and probably by a long gap.
The old Scottish universities, are a group of four intitutions founded in the 1600s. The style of education there is closer to that of continental Europe than to the English ones.
The early nineteenth-century English universities, which comprises Durham University and then many colleges of the University of London scattered around the city.
The redbrick universities; these sprang up in the new industrial towns and cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, and Leeds. They were built up out of Brick as opposed to the stone used in the older ones.
Other two types are The campus universities and The newer civic universities
Set 5
[5.1] Religion and politics
Although between 40 to 60% of British people believe in God, a very small minority attend mass regularly and most of them have only attended religious services a few times in their lives. Half do not even know what Easter celebrates and on the top of all that a survey in 2006 says that 80% of British think that religion does more harm than good.
Having said that, two of the few remaining cases in Europe of churches that by law are the official religion of a country are in Britain. In this interplay between church and state, there have been several conflicts. In one occasion the church didn't accept a law stating that homosexuals must be treated with no discrimination. These problems often arise because the church is involved in many social services that receive funding from the state.
[5.2] Anglicanism
It's said that the Anglican Church has the largest following in England as well as a large number of adherents in the other nations of Britain, but the reality is that actually less than a tenth of these people go to church on a regular basis. Within this church, three currents can be recognized.
_The low church; it gives emphasis to the the bible and is more consciously opposed to Catholicism. It doesn't accept the Pope as the higher authority. Its ceremonies are short and to the point.
_The high church; it's almost identical to the catholic church with the only difference that this doesn't accept the pope as the ultimate authority either. Its ceremonies are colorful and elaborate.
_The liberal wing; it questions some of the traditional Christian beliefs and it doesn't give the bible the importance the other currents do. It's more tolerant towards homosexuality.
[5.3] Catholicism
Catholicism is currently as open of a religion as all the others are, but in the past it used to be marginalized and even illegal. For this reason it doesn't have the burden of being the official religion in the country and so its doctrines and practices are taken a bit more seriously than those of Anglicanism. And even though it doesn't have as many adherents as the Anglican church most of its followers do attend mass. In modern times, radical and liberal wings can be recognized but it's more centralized over practices of worship.
[5.4] Other conventional Christian churches
[5.5] Other religions, churches and religious movements
[5.6] Ecumenicalism
[5.7] Church of Wales
[5.8] The importance of the national press
Even though the circulation of newspapers is on a decline probably because of the Internet, the main papers are still an important part of everyday life. There are more than 70 regional papers in Britain, but all these combined don't sell as much as the handful of national ones. Out of the seven days of the week, Sunday is the most special day as far as newspaper commercialization goes. Only the national papers are sold on Sundays, and they're much thicker on this day.
There are two types of newspapers, the tabloids and the broadsheet. The former are much more popular and sensationalist. The most popular tabloid paper is the Sun, and the most sold broadsheet is The Daily Telegraph.
[5.9] The two types of national newspapers
There are two types of newspapers, the popular papers and the quality papers. The popular ones sell to a much larger readership, are more sensationalist, and mostly focus on sex and scandal. They also contain a lot of pictures, larger headlines and a simple style of English. The quality ones are geared towards the more educated readers and develop serious story news.
These two types can also be distinguished as tabloids and spreadsheet, but this doesn't fit reality anymore because in the last decade some of the serious papers have adopted the tabloid format because it's much easier to handle.
[5.10] The characteristics of the national press: sex and scandal
The characteristic shallowness in content and the excessive display of naked women on the national press have proved to sell millions of copies every day. The now classic "page three girls" is a section in "The Sun" (though other papers have adopted it as well) exclusively devoted to having a celebrity pose half-naked for the sake of selling more and more copies. Besides sex as a theme for these newspapers, the private lives of famous people is also something they cover all the time. This have raised concern about the right to privacy everybody is supposed to have but that tends to collide with the media's right of freedom of speech.
[5.11] The BBC
The BBC is undoubtedly the most important source of information in the UK. It has a great reputation for being impartial, objective and independent. It's independent in the sense that it's not influenced by any political party, but the government could easily exert influence over the BBC because it regulates the fee the channel gets from its subscribers and it could take away its licence to broadcast.
[5.12] Television: organization
In 1954 the Independent Television (ITV) was started to compete against the BBC. The ITV is a network of commercial companies, each of which is responsible for programming in different parts of the country. Since these companies cannot afford to make all their own programmes, they generally share those they make.
[5.13] Television: style
ITV gets most of its money form advertisement, and therefore in order to charge more to its advertisers, the programmes the channel broadcast must be as popular as possible. With the increased interest to gain more audience, ITV captured nearly three-quarters of BBC's audience in its early years.
Nowadays, these two channels take part in what is known as the "ratings war." In order to get ahead of the competition, each channel attempts to enhance the quality of its programming which is made up of a wide variety of programmes such as news, documentaries, films, sports, etc. Soap operas is one of the key factors to lead in the ratings, and due to its massive popularity among TV viewers, educational programmes were moved to peripheral channels like BBC 2 and Channel 4.
The British people's outlook to work has never been driven by enthusiasm, and this has had its effects on society. For this reason skilled blue-collar workers earn more money than the lower grade white collars, which comprise half of the workforce in the country. This lack of enthusiasm is perhaps the reason why the working day, in comparison with most European countries, starts rather late (at 9 for non-manual workers).
There are three main ways in which people look for work in Britain: through the newspapers, through the local job center (which is a service provided by the government), and through private employment agencies.
Now I want to make a mention of the workforce among the two sexes. In the past, women didn't work as much as they do today, but nowadays the workforce in Britain is evenly balanced. This change has mainly been possible thanks to the law passed in 1975, which prohibited sex discrimination in employment.
[6.2] Work organizations
There are three important work organizations in the UK. First, the Confederation of British Industry (CBI) which is the union of most employers. Second, the Trades Union congress (TUC) which encompasses the hundred-or-so other smaller unions for each occupation (the labour party belongs to this more general union). Finally, there's a relatively small union but with considerable influence which doesn't belong to the TUC. This is the National Farmers' Union (NFU) and it's made up of agricultural employers and independent farmers.
[6.3] The distribution of wealth
In the early 1970s, Britain had one of the most equitable distributions of wealth in Europe. By the early 1990s, it had one of the least equitable. The gap between the rich and the poor has been gradually widening over the last few decades. This has led to more and more households finding it more difficult to make ends meet and enjoy the commodities the rest of the society can. In order to fix this issue the taxing policy in Britain prescribes that people earning twice the average have about 25% of their gross incomes deducted, while those earning less than half the average have very little tax.
However, reality tells a whole different story about the average British family. Most, while not spectacularly rich, earn just enough to live quite comfortably within their own possibilities. In the other hand, the poor are a minority, and this makes it more difficult for them to have their voice heard.
[6.4] Finance and investment
Most people in Britain are unaware of what goes on in the world of finance. To most people it's just a matter of the cash they got in their pockets and having an account in one of the "high street" banks. But the reality is that they don't even like the idea that banks are important for their finances. And they're always complaining about the charges they impose.
[6.5] Spending money: shopping
Contrary to common belief, British people are quick shoppers. Most prefer just to get what they want from a store and get out as quickly as they can. This lack of enthusiasm in spending a lot of time shopping has led to the advent of supermarkets and hypermarkets where they can get pretty much anything they need. These places are mainly located outside town centers, and most of the shopping is done there. However, pedestrian streets are still relevant for shopping in the UK. These are generally geared towards poor people who don't own a car to go to an out-of-town big market.
[6.6] Shop opening hours
Shops normally open at 9 a.m and close at 5 p.m. Sumermarkets stay open until 8 p.m. In some areas, it's encouraged that high street shops stay open very late on the evenings as a way of injecting life into dead town centres. Sunday is a special case in Britain. It used to be against the law to open on Sundays, but after the some lobbying the regulations were relaxed and now shopping can open freely on these days if they want to.
[6.7] Welfare: the benefits of the system
There are various kinds of benefits the government gives to individuals who need financial aid. It can be paid to people who are unemployed, to people who earn very little, or to large families. Moreover, there exist a sickness benefit, a maternity benefit, death grants, etc.
Old-age pension is provided to people who have retired form work and have contributed during most of their working lives. But as this pension isn't very high many people make arrangements to have some additional form of income after they retire, like setting up a life insurance policy.
[6.8] Social services and charities
There are more than 150.000 charitable organizations in Britain which are aided by the government and whose staff consists of volunteers. As these are non-profit organizations, they do't pay taxes and they mainly rely on voluntary contributions from the public.
[6.9] The National Health Service
The National Health Service, or NHS as it's most commonly referred to, is a publicly funded healthcare system in the United Kingdom. It provides a comprehensive range of health servicies, the vast majority of which are free. It's entirely independent and it operates under its own rules.
All that anybody has to do to be assured the full benefits of the system is to register with a local NHS doctor. These doctors are generally General Practitioners. A visit to the GP is the first step towards getting any kind of treatment. From there, the GP arranges for whatever tests, surgery, specialist consultation or medicine are necessary.
Some of the problems the NHS faces is the lack of funding for providing assistance to patients with very serious diseases. Additionally, some times resources are limited and so medical practitioners have to decide which patients with get them and which will not. For these and other issues a lot of people decide to go private, though they're still obliged to pay the NHS fee through taxation.
[6.10]
The medical profession
[6.11]
Some well-known charities
[6.12]
Private medical care
[6.13]
Alternative medicine
