Thursday, July 31, 2014

Essay Outline

history: UK formed the elite - US helped reduced social-class distinction

Current issues: UK quality (3 Rs), equality, freedom of choice. US racial equality, Hispanic/latino population (racial segretation; "separate but equal", "magnet" schools; affirmative action)

UK Style - US Ladder
Approach: UK learning for its own sake rather than for any particular reason (focus on the quality of the person as opposed to his or her skills); understanding and sophistication of approach over the accumulation of factual knowledge - US vocational skills, practical tools; emphasis on developing critical-thinking skilss over aquiring quantities of facts;

College education: UK few 16-year-olds go straight out and look for a job (Britain's enthusiasm for continuing education. In both UK and US students need to work while studying. US colleges look for well-rounded students with high scores and relevant extracurricular activities (such as sports).

Wednesday, July 30, 2014

Essay: Parliament vs. Congress

Though in a broad and basic sense law-making in Great Britain and the United States share some similarities, the passing of laws, the system of elections, the role of political parties, and many other features are intrinsically different. Both the British Parliament and the American Congress are made up of two houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons in the former, and the Senate and the House of Representatives in the latter; however, the way these houses interact with each other is one of the aspects they differ substantially in these two countries.

In the Parliament the Lords has next to no power compared with the Commons. The latter is the one which drafts, composes and reviews bill proposals, leaving the Lords with just the task of discussing and spotting inconsistencies, but never with the possibility of challenging them. In the Congress, however, the Senate and the Representatives must agree on all legislation before it goes to the president for him or her to act on it.

There are about 650 members in the Commons, and 92 is the limit for the members in the Lords. In the Congress there are 435 representatives and 100 senators. Directly voted by the people, the members of Parliament represent during their five-year term one of the many constituencies the country is divided into. The Lords are chosen through the life peerage system, means by which experienced politians get to continue their career. Conversely, the senators and the representatives are chosen separately, and by the people to perform their duties during their six and two-year term respectively.

As regards parties, both systems are almost always dominated by two parties. In Britain the two most popular ones are the Labors and the Conservatives, and the one that takes the majority of seats in the Commons promotes its leader to the position of head of state, whereas the runner-up presents itself as an alternative government. In the Congress the two big parties are the Republicans and the Democrats, but here the legislative branch does not promote the leader of the winning party as president.


While it is true that these two systems have many features in common, they are nonetheless used universally across numerous law-making bodies from other countries as well. Thus, a further exploration of these systems will only accentuate the different and unique characteristics that have evolved over each countries differing history.

Monday, June 30, 2014

Vida e Instituciones de G.B. y EE.UU.: Written Exam

1) What is the characteristic of the social classification of British people?
Social classes in Britain can be divided in three different groups: the working class, the middle-class, and high-class people. There are clear differences among the people from these groups which range from daily habits, the food they eat, topics of conversation, pastimes, sports, to values and demeanor. 

However, the one factor that actually brings these social classes apart is accent. The high-class people's accent is called Received Pronunciation and is considered to be the standard accent of the UK. The lower classes use a varying number of regional non-standard accents.

2) Which of the two houses is the most important? What's the difference between the American Congress and the British Parliament?
Since 1911 the House of Commons holds more power than the House of Lords. The Lords lost its power due to a king's retaliation against them when they rejected a bill about financial matters that wasn't meant to be their job (traditionally the Commons were in charge of bills regarding financial matters). Therefore the king let it be known that the members of the House of Lords either agreed to a bill which would limit their powers or else the king would appoint hundreds of new members to vote for their bills. The Lords preferred to have their powers limited rather than to have hundreds of new peers to deal with. That's how the Lords relinquished its power.

As for the differences between the British Parliament and the American Congress, what I've noticed from the notes is that:
  • In the British Parliament the House of Lords is party-independent, while in the American Congress one or the two houses can be controlled by a political party. 
  • In Britain the Lords are appointed through the traditionalist life peering system, while in the U.S. members of both houses are elected.
  • In the British Parliament the House of Lords doesn't have real power to stop a bill. In the American Congress a bill must pass both houses to advance to the next stage.
3) Write about the invasions in Great Britain.
From the year 43 to 410 the Romans occupied Britannia. They left very little infrastructure behind, but they did exert an enduring influence over a big part of the Celt population (later called Britons) which may be what triggered the emergence of two distinct branches of the Celtic languages.

Then it came the Germanic invasions, which lasted a lot much longer. The first one was carried out in the fifth century by the Angles and the Saxons, and the south-east of the country was soon part of their kingdom. By the end of the sixth century their way of life predominated in nearly all of present-day England, especially in the countryside where they had a greater influence. Another Germanic invasion was executed in the eighth century by invaders from Scandinavia known as Vikings, and via armed conflict the north and east of the country was all they were able to conquer.

In the year 1066 the Normans invaded and became the rulers of England. When the Norman soldiers settled down they founded a hierarchy-based feudal system coming all the way down from the peasants (which here the English speaking Saxons), the Normandy French-speaking lords, the great nobles, to the almighty king. In terms of the politics, in the next 250 years after the invasion the Anglo-Norman kingdom extended to parts of Ireland and to the entire territory of Wales. Only Scotland did manage to remain independent but was occasionally forced to fight for it. At the level of culture though, it was the language of the Anglo-Saxons (English) and not French the one that prevailed.

4) What's the importance of religion in the UK?
With the obvious exception of Northern Ireland, most of The United Kingdom is nowadays very open and unprejudiced toward religion. Although between 40 to 60% of British people believe in God, there's absolute freedom to profess disbelief in God or in any religion.

Furthermore, in spite of fact that most British believe in god, they don't actually commit their daily lives to practicing their beliefs the church way. By this I mean that a very small minority attend mass regularly and most of them have only gone to religious services a few times in their lives. Half don't even know what Easter celebrates, and on the top of all that a survey in 2006 states that 80% of the British think that religion does more harm than good.

Finally, religion doesn't even have implications in people's sense of identity. As I said above they're for the most part indifferent of who you support or what you worship. Not even in a proposal of marriage or friendship does religion have in important role.

5) What are the two types of British newspapers? Explain the main characteristics
There are two types of newspapers, the popular papers and the quality papers. The popular ones sell to a much larger readership, are more sensationalist, and mostly focus on sex and scandal. They also contain a lot of pictures, larger headlines and a simple style of English. The quality ones are geared towards the more educated readers and develop serious story news.

These two types can also be distinguished as tabloids and spreadsheet, but this doesn't fit reality anymore because in the last decade some of the serious papers have adopted the tabloid format because it's much easier to handle.

6) What is the open university?
This is about distance education. When the open university started in 1969 its courses were taught through television, radio and especially written material. These days, of course, it uses the internet. Students send their work to tutors and attend some courses in the summer.

7) What american consumers like?
Americans are particularly fond of comfort, cleanliness, novelty and convenience.

It's believed that their love for comfort has to do with the hardships they had to go through during the tough frontier times. Perhaps the pioneers thought they'd had enough of a tough lifestyle and at some point they wanted their lives to be easier.

Cleanliness might come from the Puritans, a Protestant church group whose members stressed the need to cleanse the body of dirt and of all evil tendencies. The saying "cleanliness is next to godliness" reflects how Americans feel about having not only their bodies clean, but also their clothes, their houses, their cars, and even their pets.

Novelty might come from their pride in their inventiveness. They like to see changes in cars, clothing, and products for the home. Advertisements encourage people to get rid of old stuff, and replace them with new things, regardless of whether the old stuff still works or not.

Finally, convenience is what makes them purchase labor-saving devices such as dishwashers, food processors, microwave ovens, etc. Their desire for convenience also created the concept of fast-food, the take-out services and even prepacked food ready to cook.

8) Who is Alexis de Tocqueville?
Alexis de Tocqueville was a French historian who was especially drawn to the American democracy, society, idiosyncrasy, etc. He went to the United States in 1831 and wrote a remarkable book called Democracy in America, which is a classic study of the American way of life. He described not only the democratic system of government and how it operated, but also its effect on how Americans think, feel and act.

9) Which are the degrees obtained in the universities of USA and Britain














Tuesday, June 24, 2014

Vida e Instituciones de G.B. y EE.UU. : Final EE.UU

[7.1] Life in the United States
The United States is so big and ethnically diverse that lifestyle varies according to the place you live and the group you belong to or identify with. Aside from Native Americans, all Americans' ancestors come from foreign countries. In the 1500s, Spain and France claimed large territories in the country but the immigrants from England were the large majority and it was them that actually shaped the values and traditions that are dominant in today's culture of the United States.

[7.2] A nation of immigrants
In late 1800s and the early 1900s the United States took a huge amount of immigrants who mainly came from central, eastern, and southern Europe. During the first two decades of the twentieth century, there were as many as 1 million new immigrants per year, but in 1921 this number dropped to only 150,000 as the country began to limit immigration through a quota system. From 1965 to 1990 the immigration flow once again started to grow up until the point of taking in 1 million immigrants per year, the majority of which were from Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia.

These two big waves of immigration had large implications in terms of the ethnic mix of the American population. Over the last two decades, Latinos, Asians and black people have been growing in number, and as most of the first generation of immigrants died already, the white people population is growing smaller.

[7.3] Cultural pluralism in the United States
Upon the large numbers of immigrants that have landed on the United States, the question that immediately arises is: will they maintain their culture or will they adopt that of America? Perhaps the answer is both. Bilingualism and biculturism are a reality in many communities, but there's also the case of many immigrant's grandchildren who simply do not speak the language of their old country and are American by culture.

Another thing worthy of mention in the context of cultural pluralism is that all minorities together outnumber the countries majority. This means that more than half of the population are members of minority groups. In spite of all this diversity, the sense of national identity is still what binds Americans together.

[7.4] Making generalizations about American beliefs

[7.5] The context of traditional American values: racial, ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity
The United States being what many called the "land of opportunity" has always been a breeding ground for diversity. In the beginning its society was made up of Native Americans, Spanish and dutch settlers, French missionaries, African slaves, and British colonists who provided the foundation for the political and economic systems developed in the US. In this scenario, accepting diversity was the only viable option. In all this diversity what made it possible to make a homogeneous society was a definite set of rules and the same values.

[7.6] Individual freedom and self-reliance
Freedom was the first settlers' driving force to America. In order to place the power to govern in the hands of the people the British cut ties with their English kings and established the United States of America. Then they wrote the Constitution and made it clear that church and state shall be separated, and it also expressly forbade any type of aristocracy.

All these decisions honored freedom, one of the most important of the American values, and shaped the American character. However, the price to be paid for individual freedom was self-reliance. In order to keep one's freedom one must be able to support oneself both financially and emotionally. In today's American society, kids have an urgency to leave their parent's house as early as possible to prove to themselves and to everybody else that they're independent.

[7.7] Equality of opportunity and competition
The first immigrants felt that they were free from excessive political, religious, and social controls and therefore that there was a wider window for success.

If there was freedom, then there was a chance to succeed, and for success to be possible there was equality of opportunity. The immigrants knew that in their new country they wouldn't have to live among families with great inherited power. For them equality meant that regardless of their initial position everyone should have a shot in life to be successful.

However, the price to be paid for this equality of opportunity is competition, which is another very important element that of the American character. Today, Americans enjoy matching their energy and intelligence against others, and from a social perspective those who come up on top are praised and called winners; those who don't, are put down and called losers, and on top of that they feel they don't fit into the mainstream of American life.

[7.8] Material wealth and hard work
All the reasons for immigrating to America come down to having a better life, to raising their standard of living. They knew very well that if they couldn't make a fortune, their children at least would have a fairly better opportunity for a better life. However, many achieved to go from rags to riches and as a consequence a sense of attachment to material things became a value to the American people.

They don't like being called materialistic, but they do appreciate the possession of a large number of material things as it is accepted as a measure of success and social status. Again, to achieve material wealth, Americans need to pay a price: hard work. In present-day United States it's more difficult to achieve this material success as there's been a change of paradigm. The economy has shifted form being industry-based to one that's service or information-based and this has affected blue-collar workers.

[7.9] The American dream

[8.1] Freedom of religion in the United States
Due to the great number of ethnic backgrounds existent in the United States there's a lot of different religions in the country, and the right that every individual has to choose among these is the center of the religious experience in the United States. This religious diversity I'm talking about is so big that almost every religion existent in the world is represented in the U.S.

[8.2] The development of Protestantism
The development of Protestantism is started when the Protestant branch of the Christian faith broke away from the Roman Catholic church in Europe in the sixteenth century. After this happened, the Protestants found that they themselves couldn't agree in many points regarding beliefs and for this reason many "denominations" were born, such as Baptists, Methodists, Lutheran, etc. This separation stirred up strong emotions and led to the persecution of some denominations and even to many people being killed. As the years went by, however, the adoption of the Constitution and its lack of affiliation with the church brought new airs tolerance and the Protestant denominations adopted an "live and let live" kind of attitude toward the others.

[8.3] The Protestant heritage: self-improvement
Self-improvement is one of the most important values associated with American Protestantism. It's also part of the legacy this religion has introduced into society. Americans constantly seek to improve as people and the thousands of self-help seminars and support group meetings are proof of this.

[8.4] Material success, hard work, and self-discipline
Material wealth as a form of self-improvement is also part of the nation's Protestant heritage. Even though materialism and religion may seem contradictory, some of the early Protestant leaders believed that people who were blessed and defended the value of hard-work were awarded by God with material success. Hard-work and self-discipline in order to pursuit wealth set the foundations of the protestant work ethic and this made an important contribution to the industrial growth of the United States.

[8.5] Volunteerism and Humanitarianism
The idea of self-improvement also means becoming a better person by helping others, whether it be by donating part of their money (or possessions) or time. This philosophy is sometimes called volunteerism or humanitarianism. Some of the richest people from the United States, like Bill Gates and others, manage their public relations by donating big chunks of their money. Many Americans believe they should be generous with others in order to be acceptable in the eyes of God and of other Americans.

[8.6] September 11, 2011, and the national religion

[8.7] Religious diversity in the United States
The non-existence of a central church in the U.S. has encouraged the acceptance of all types of faiths, which in turn opens the door for the development of further cultural pluralism. Today, four trends can be recognized in the U.S.:

_First: the number of Protestants has to a little over 50 percent, while the Catholics are increasing in number. Those who choose "other or none" are also growing. The Jews, on the other hand, remain the same.
_Second: some people in order to find a personal religious identity switch faiths.
_Third: liberals as well as conservative religious organizations are emerging in the US.
_Fourth: many Americans, especially youngsters, define themselves as spiritual rather than religious.

[8.8] The impact of the American frontier
The American frontier consisted of the relatively unsettled regions of the western part of the country. It's what is usually portrayed in Hollywood movies where there are cowboys and indians, or maybe a ranch where a man chops wood, and stuff like that.

Here, life was more primitive that in the more populated eastern lands. And the way they came about was through people gradually moving further west as the frontier towns became more populated. The people from this time believed it was their destiny to control all the land, and eventually they did.

Some of the values associated with the frontier heritage of the U.S. are individualism, self-reliance, and quality of opportunity.

[8.9] Self-reliance and the rugged individualist
Rugged individualism and self-reliance in the frontier period meant dismissing the society's comforts and conveniences. Americans have portrayed heroes with rugged individualism as physically tough men with skills to use guns and other weapons. He was fit for the harsh conditions they had to endure in the frontier life.

There are two types of heroic rugged individualists. The earliest version of rugged heroes is seen as an individual able to get through any challenge that the wilderness might put him against with. The other type of hero came later in what is known as the "wild west", when the wilderness had already been conquered. This was more of a man against man situation, and a hero from this period is someone so physically strong that could defeat two or three ordinary men at one time. This type of hero has inspired countless of western movies.

[8.10] American Macho Heroes
The epitome of the Macho hero in the US is the typical tough man who's skillful in street fights as well as in gunfights, and who's always been the main character in movies and video games.

This idea of a hero comes from the Wild West, but some have criticized it because it underscores the importance of cooperation, it overlooks how important women have been in history, and it glorifies gunfights and violence. This is why lot of Americans draw a relationship between the violence that these heroes seem to glorify and the shootings that have taken place in recent years.

Owning guns is a very controversial issue in the U.S. that has largely been debated over and over again. The Constitution states that it's a right to own a gun, but many have strong opinions against it. It could also be said that this has a lot to do with Americans' willingness to take the law into their hands to protect themselves and their families, which is also part of the Wild West legacy.

[8.11] Inventiveness and the can-do spirit
This was all about men and women being able to come up with solutions to the problems and situations of their everyday lives. They would always manage with what they got and just by using their creativity. This readiness to invent new stuff, such as tools, spread throughout the country and led to the "can-do" spirit, which was the sense that every problem has a solution, nothing is impossible.

[8.12] Equality of opportunity

[9.1] A history of abundance
The U.S. was always been naturally abundant, and together with the fact that the immigrating Europeans came with strong determination to get rich, the country soon became one of the wealthiest in the world. These people had a sense of urgency in becoming richer and richer because they knew that in a country that status didn't depend as much in family line as in Europe, they could lose their riches in a short period of time. Therefore, the entire population joined in the task of increasing the nation's material abundance as quickly as possible. This endeavor Americans took on, now shows up in Americans judging themselves by materialistic standards, which isn't seen as a mark of weak morality, but as a sign of them feeling proud for what they've got through hard-work.

[9.2] From producers to consumers
In the early stages American society most Americans thought of themselves as producers rather than consumers. However, the mass advertising that was possible with the invention of the radio brought a change of paradigm - entertainment shows were accompanied by commercials. Later TV surpassed the Radio as the main outlet for advertising. Today it's estimated that the average American sees about 50,000 commercial a year.

[9.3] What American consumers like
Americans are particularly fond comfort, cleanliness, novelty and convenience.

It's believed that their love of comfort has to do with the hardships they had to go through during the tough times of the frontier. Perhaps the pioneers thought they had had enough of that and at some point wanted their lives to be radically easier.

Cleanliness might come from the Puritans, a Protestant church group whose members stressed the need to cleanse the body of dirt and of all evil tendencies. The saying "cleanliness is next to godliness" reflects that how Americans feel about having not only their bodies clean, but also their clothes, their houses, their cars, and even their pets.

As for novelty, it might come from their pride in their inventiveness. They like to see changes in cars, clothing, and products for the home. Advertisements encourage people to get rid of old stuff, and replace them with new things, regardless of whether the old stuff still works or not.

Finally, convenience is what makes them purchase labor-saving devices such as dishwashers, food processors, microwave ovens, etc. Their desire for convenience also created the concept of fast-food, the take-out services and even prepacked food ready to cook.

[9.4] An abundance of technology
Technology has changed the way people watch television, entertain themselves. Some years ago, the free networks NBC, CBS, ABC and Fox used to occupy the attention of the majority of Americans, but now cable and satellite TV are more popular. On the other hand, Internet have disputed television as the main source of entertainment, as users now see their computers as a TV, DVD and CD player combined. Internet is also a major source of news, information and even a shopping place.

[9.5] The challenges of technological revolution

[9.6] The ever-expanding pie?
Americans always practiced the belief that their material wealth was unlimited and so there would never exist the issue of rich people taking up a little bit too much of the pie and leave the poor with too little to get by. This way of seeing things resulted for the most part in good things, such as the fact that it made them very optimistic and reduced the conflict between the rich and the poor.

[9.7] Or the decline of the American abundance?
In recent years the United States has gone through some recessions that has made Americans re-think their idea of unlimited natural resources. In the 80s and 90s the rich got richer and the poor got poorer. Many Americans now have to worker harder than their parents did to have the same standard of living. Now the reality is that working fifty or sixty hours per week might not suffice to afford the price of housing.

[9.8] The characteristic of American business
To Americans business come down to two words: private and profit. They are owned and operated by private individuals in order to make a profit.

[9.9] How business reinforces other values
Americans generally appreciate business institutions because they're firmly based on the ideal of competition. Competition is a value that opens up opportunities of progress and prosperity, but most importantly it protects the most basic values of freedom, equality of opportunity and hard-work.

Competition protects freedom in the sense that there's no monopoly to power. Where there's a business making profit, there's going to be another trying to be a notch ahead. It's also believed to strengthen the ideal of equality of opportunity; competition is equated to a race, where every body has a chance to win, but only the swiftest person with succeed regardless of social class. Finally, this value also encourages hard work. If two people run a business, the one that works harder is going to be more successful than the one who doesn't.















Saturday, June 14, 2014

Traducción Juridica: 1st Mid-term

SET 1

1. Which factors have contributed to the enhanced status of legal translation in the XXI century?
Legal translation is needed whenever in a multilingual environment activities of any sort are regulated by laws. Such is the case in international cooperation and business conducted by private and public sectors, international bodies such as the European Union, governments, courts, police forces, lawyers, etc. Thus, legal translation has an enhanced status because it is absolutely essential for all these international affairs to work properly. 

2. What is ESP?
ESP stands for English for special (or specific) purposes, and over the last two decades it has come about as a result of the tendency towards greater specialization in the teaching of English. 

3. Why do legal translators need to be familiarized with two or more legal systems?
Having (at least) a good insight into the ST and the TT legal systems is of essential importance for the translator as this is the only way he or she will be able to fully understand the ST and produce quality translations with the proper selection of terms.

4. Which are the two linguistic approaches to a text suggested by Alcaraz Varó?
The first of the two approaches is "bottom-up linguistic processing" and it implies the full understanding of the ST paying close attention to every unit of meaning, which goes from the smaller ones such as morphemes and the larger ones such as sentences and paragraphs. The other approach is "top-down linguistic processing," and here the translator can more freely rely on his intuition and experience by inferring the meaning of the text. Such inferences are either confirmed or dismissed as the translator advances in the reading of the text.

5. Why is the concept of text type or genre so useful in legal translation?
The genre of the ST gives the translator a general idea of what its content will be about, which is very useful information for the translation-orientated analysis of the text.

6. What is the main concern of the plain English campaign? Why was it only partially successful?
The "plain English campaign" was driven by the necessity of ordinary people to understand the legal language when they needed to defend their rights or settle their differences. However, they could only achieve a partial clarification and simplification of it because in the end the technical accuracy which this language can provide prevailed over the demands of the uncomprehending majority. The old-fashioned and archaic language that legal texts usually make use of is less prone to semantic changes as it is not used in other contexts but in the strict legal sense.

7. Account for the large number of Latin and French terms in legal English.
The reason why there are so many Latinisms in legal English is because English grew out of a system which evolved in the Middle Ages, when Latin was the most widely spoken language throughout Europe. Therefore, a lot of precepts and formulations were inherited in the original language and left untranslated. As far as French terms are concerned, these too date back to the earliest stages of development of the English law.  Both these lexical sources have their places secured within the legal English as it is a field that relies on their accuracy to function properly.

8. What principle should guide legal translators when dealing with euphemisms?
It is advised that legal translators find a proper term that goes along with the natural habits of the target audience whenever a literal translation is not clear enough or could arise unwanted reactions such as amusement. Such is the case with a literal translation terms of art such as "a man assisting police with their inquiries," which is more adequately translated as something along the lines of "the police is interrogating a suspect."

9. Legal texts are said to be a mixture of style and registers, why?
Legal texts are indeed a breeding ground for a lot of different types of writing. For one part there is the wide use of archaic terms from Latin and French origin used in elaborated formal discourse. There is also the occasional fossilized vocabulary and syntax present in, for example, the old verb inflection "th" that appears in references to older texts. Moreover, due to the nature of the legal processes a lot of references are made to fields outside the law which makes for an even more complex mixture of terminology. Contemporary language is also added in the form of slang and idioms in euphemisms such as mugging or the language used in police reports. For all the reasons explained above as well as a number of other factors, legal texts are rich in the variety of the language used.

10. How is legal vocabulary generally classified?
Vocabulary can be generally divided into two groups: functional words and symbolic words. The former refers to words that have no meaning by themselves and whose function is to link ideas and concepts within a sentence. Some of these words are "subject to", "hereinafter", "whereas", etc. Symbolic words are those which refer to actual things or ideas in the world of reality, physical or mental, such as "contract", "right", "court", "law", etc.

This group can be further divided into a) purely technical vocabulary, which are terms only found in legal texts and with no meaning outside it like "solicitor"; b) semi-technical terms, which are common words that have acquired special meanings in the context of legal activity; c) everyday vocabulary, which are terms that are present in legal texts but keep the regular meaning they have outside it.

11. Refer briefly to the main morphological and syntactic features of legal English.
There are many different morphological and syntactic features that differentiate legal texts from others types. They can briefly be outlined as follows:

*Long sentences with multiple subordination and late placement of the main verb in the sentence.
*Complex morphology as in the words "notwithstanding" "thereinafter," etc.
*Abundant use of passive voice.
*Multiple use of conditional and hypothetical clauses.
*Occasional simple syntax of plain judicial narrative.
*Suffixes -er (-or) and -ee.

SET 2

1. In what ways has the concept of equivalence varied among different translation theories?
A few decades ago, Nida observed that semantic equivalence is of essential importance to the production of an effective translation. However, more recently new advances in the field of pragmatics has found that there are other factors that contribute new layers to the phenomenon of equivalence as well. Alcaraz names these new variables "contextualized meaning," and it comprises what is implied or understood by those involved in the context of an utterance.
2. What do translators and judges have in common?
Translators and judges share the professional task of interpreting the meaning of texts. For the translator, the purpose of interpretation is to decide on the closest possible linguistic equivalent in the target language, while for the judge it is to match up his conclusions against the definitions established in the law.
3. What is the major problem for legal translators when dealing with semantic meaning?
The problem legal translators have to often deal with is the same judges usually get hung up on: words and their semantic shift over time. Unlike in other kinds of texts, translators cannot always expect consensus among the circuit of their fellow counterparts when it comes to the definition of an ambiguous term. This is so because in legal texts, terms are continually being redefined as social developments force legislation to change simply in order to keep up with the latest standards of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Dictionaries are of very little use in this case, as they only refer to words in their past meanings.
4. What is the distinction between the concept of construction and interpretation?
To some jurists "construction" is more of a linguistic task, while "interpretation" is more ideological. In other words, "construction" is an attempt to conduct a linguistic analysis aimed at deducing the textual meaning of a word, phrase or clause from the surrounding utterance. The entire context is taken into consideration, including word position, the author's linguistic habits (if known), punctuation, etc. On the other hand, the explanations of "interpretation" have more to do with scientific theories, beliefs or precedent. However, for practical purposes are treated as close synonyms the majority of the time.

5. According to Varó, what should translators do with ambiguous terms and phrases?
Varó recommends translators to reproduce the ambiguity as literally as possible and leave the matter up to the parties concerned. Those who later will be in charge of sorting out the meanings of ambiguous terms do so by following a set rules that guarantees a sensible construction.
6. Why do judges treat ambiguity differently if the text is a statue or a private document?
In dealing with private documents, judges feel entitled to clarifying ambiguous terms without giving it much forethought. However, when it comes to construing what Acts of Parliaments are supposed to mean, they do not do it with the same feeling of freedom (If any at all). They base their decisions under the premise that MPs know what they mean and mean what they say. In other words, they honor the obvious sense of words indicated by ordinary grammar and logic.
7. What does it mean to define a text by extension or by intention?
"Extension" is defined as the class of objects to which a term refers. "Intention", in the other hand, is equivalent to the sum of the attributes comprehended in the concept.
8. Why is the concept of connotative meaning useful in legal translation?
In legal English - and certainly in all the other fields as well - some words - especially those of everyday use - do not only carry their explicit meaning, but also an implicit semantic connotation. Thus, words that seem to be technically transparent and neutral in one language, turn out to bear a strong connotative meaning in another, which either positive or negative, may in turn elicit unintended reactions from the audience. Therefore, in order for the translator to be faithful to what the author intends to convey, he needs to be aware of the connotative implication words have in the target language.
9. What are the three possible kinds of contexts?
In the first place, "context of utterance" is the immediate physical and temporal environment in which the communication takes place. The second type often receives the name of "co-text" and it is the words or sentences that precede or follow the word or phrase in question. The third sense of context is extralinguistic and consists of the habits, expectations and conventions characteristic of the society concerned.

10. What is a buried metaphor?
Buried metaphors are words or phrases that though nobody is conscious of it, they are actually metaphors.

11. What should translators do with metaphors?
When dealing with metaphors it is advised that the translator chooses the plainest possible rendering in order to avoid running the risk of highly colored expressions that are not suitable with the generally formal and even solemn tone of legal texts.
12. Is there any room for figurative language?
People tend to erroneously think that technical disciplines are largely free of metaphors. This prejudice derives from the misconception that figurative language is mere decoration. But in reality, all languages are a mixture of figurative and non-figurative elements, and whether it is legal language or any other type, figurative language is always present.
13. What do we mean by structural ambiguity?

____________________________________________________________________________
Es traducción fiel dell idioma inglés al español del documento xxx que he tenido a la vista y al cual me remito. San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca, 17 de Junio de 2014. 

FIRMA.












Thursday, September 19, 2013

Conversations III: My Favorite Hero

To tell you the truth I don't have any hero I look up to. I'm not really a big hero guy, who will stuck on one particular fictional o real life person and see him as a hero. I'm a fan of a few people, I'll give you that, but I don't think I would call them heroes.

Said that, I still chose a hero so as not to go like "I don't have any heroes, so I can't do this". At first I was kinda reluctant to choose this cartoon character because I thought everybody would choose him, but to hell with that I want to mention him too.

I'm talking about Gokú, especially the grown-up Gokú. First and foremost, his personality was always magnetic and he had no ego at all. Despite being the most powerful being in the world, he was always a very down-to-earth kind of guy, who would never look down on anyone. He was a very positive leader, yet he was approachable and open to learning new things. Furthermore, something I really like about him is that he had a passion. I like people who have a passion. He loved fighting, and he knew that whenever he committed to training he would always, no matter what, come up on top against any villain.

That's why Gokú is my favorite hero. Despite the fact that he is a fictional character, I'm certain he influenced thousands of children in a very positive way.

Sunday, September 15, 2013

Introducción a la Filosofía: 2er Examen (Tacna)

1) Desarrollo de página 147
El valor que he sido asignado a reflexionar es el valor del amor, pero cuando éste se corrompe con vicios dañinos que terminan por tornarlo en un estado patológico. En la obra "valores", el amor es calificado como perteneciente a la categoría de los valores afectivos.

Sirviéndose de la opinión del psicoanalista Fernando Maestre, se señala que la "sobredosis" de amor puede ser dañina tanto para el hombre como para la mujer. Las mujeres que se aferran enfermizamente a su pareja, suelen auto-esclavizarse cuando su pareja se encuentra ausente. Lo que esto causa en el hombre, es una deseo desesperado por "huir" de tal situación.

Para evitar esta inestabilidad sentimental se recomienda educar educar a los niños con sinceridad, diciendo, por ejemplo, que en el amor siempre existe sufrimiento.

2) Apuntes de clase
En las clases que hemos tenido hasta la fecha hemos aprendido que filosofía deriva del latin philosophĭa, que significa amor por la sabiduría. Así mismo, la filosofía es la interrogación o curiosidad sobre el ser, el cual se entiende como las cosas, objetos, acontecimientos, circunstancias, eventos etc.

En clase hemos puesto en práctica el aspecto interrogador de la filosofía al formular las preguntas: "¿qué es esto?", la cual es de caracter interpersonal y "¿quién soy en realidad?", que es intrapersonal.

Por otro lado, también hemos tenido una explicación general objeto de la epistemología, entendida como el conocimiento en particular (física, química, religión, etc) y la nociología como un conocimiento abarcativo.

3) El Hombre
El hombre desde el punto de vista biológico es una especie animal cuya denominación científica es Homo sapiens. El hombre es un animal social capaz de concebir, transmitir, y aprender conceptos totalmente abstractos.

En la filosofía no se utiliza tanto la palabra hombre, y en su lugar se emplea el término individuo. El individuo es un sujeto único y racional, capaz de dirigir por sí mismo su propia conducta así como determinar cuáles son sus preferencias, necesidades y fines.

Desde el punto de vista teológico, el hombre es hecho a imagen y semejanza de Dios. Pero por su condición de humano, el hombre peca y no es perfecto.

Página 40: 
El valor que he sido asignado a reflexionar es el valor de la pureza, calificado en la obra "valores" como perteneciente a la categoría de los valores intelectuales.

La pureza es definida en dicha obra como la cualidad de aquel que no traiciona sus ideas ni se deja corromper por el interés. En base a esto se puede conjeturar que alguien que posee esta virtud no se dejaría llevar por un impulso momentáneo de placer efímero si esto significara sacrificar algo más duradero y precioso.

Más adelante en el desarrollo de este tema se plantea la incógnita de cuán importante es la salud en nuestras vidas. Respecto a esto, no se realiza un ensalzamiento de la salud como la cosa más preciosa de la vida, sino que se la pone al mismo nivel que la alimentación y el descanso, porque sin éstos el hombre no puede ser hombre.

Otra tema que se abarca en esta parte de la obra es el dinero. Cuanto más dinero alguien tiene, más necesidades y también caprichos esa persona tiene. La paz y la armonía se ven corrompidas si no se descuidan los valores del amor y la moderación por causa del dinero.

Friday, July 5, 2013

Problématica del Mundo Contemporaneo: Final

Unidad 1: Cultura y Transformación Social


1a. Génesis Social de la Idea de Cultura
El término "cultura" encontró en Francia el lugar en donde desarrollaría su significado, para luego pasar por un proceso de construcción semántica que involucró un debate - a veces conflictivo - entre franceses y alemanes, y también algunas idas y vueltas con el concepto de "civilización".

En forma más detallada, la palabra "cultura" ingresa al idioma francés con su significado derivado del latin, el cual significaba el cuidado de los campos o del ganado.
• En el siglo XIII "cultura" designa a una parcela de tierra cultivada;
• en el XIV a la acción de cultivar.
• Luego en los siglos XVI y XVII la palabra empieza a ser usada con el sentido figurado de cultivar una facultad.
• En el siglo XVIII se la usa acompañada de complementos como en las frases: "cultura de las artes", "de las letras", "de las ciencias", etc.
• Más adelante, la palabra empieza a ser usada sin esos complementos y se la afirma como opuesta al concepto de "naturaleza".

En esta fase a la cultura se la define como "la suma de los saberes acumulados y trasmitidos por la humanidad en el curso de la historia". Con la ideología del siglo de las luces imperante en la época, el término cultura se asocia con la idea de progreso, educación, razón, etc. y así se acerca a la palabra de boga de aquel tiempo: "civilización".

A todo esto, en la Alemania del siglo XVII aparece la traducción "Kultur" y tiene más éxito que su par en Francia ya que no comparte protagonismo con un concepto como el de "civilización".

Incluso, en Alemania  la palabra "civilización" es más tarde utilizada en contraposición de cultura. Esto se debe a que el enfrentamiento entre la burguesía intelectual y la aristocracia de la corte produce una ruptura que abre dos sistemas de valores en donde, por un lado, todo lo auténtico y enriquecedor es denominado como "cultura"; y por otro, todo lo de apariencia brillante y superficial es denominado "civilización". Para la burguesía alemana la aristocracia carecía de cultura.

Con el correr del tiempo, el término civilización pierde su connotación aristocrática y evoca más bien a Francia y a las potencias occidentales. Del mismo modo, "cultura" deja de ser característica de la burguesía y se convierte en una marca distintiva de Alemania. En el detrás de escena de este cambio, existen las mismas raíces de relación de inferioridad que sentían los burgueses con respecto a los aristócratas, solo que ahora representada en la relación de una Alemania débil y una Francia poderosa.

En el siglo XIX la cultura se vincula cada vez más con la idea de "nación". En este momento histórico la cultura es definida como "conjunto de conquistas artísticas, intelectuales y morales que constituyen el patrimonio de una nación".

Retornando a Francia, con todo el desarrollo que el término "cultura" tuvo en Alemania, esta palabra se enriquece con una dimensión colectiva asignando un conjunto de características de una comunidad. Sin embargo, a largos rasgos la concepción francesa de la cultura seguirá siendo universalista, mientras que la alemana se mantendrá en su posición particularista.


1b. La Evolución Hasta el Concepto Científico del Término Cultura
El concepto científico del término cultura comienza con la reflexión positiva que se adopta sobre el hombre y la sociedad, la cual se manifiesta principalmente a través de la etnología. Esta ciencia consistía en pensar la diversidad dentro de la unidad del hombre, lo cual no era posible de hacer desde el punto de vista de la biología.

El antropólogo británico Edward Tylor define por primera vez el concepto etnológico de la cultura, calificándola como "complejo que comprende el conocimiento, las creencias, el arte, la moral, el derecho, las costumbres, etc. adquiridas por el hombre en tanto miembro de la sociedad". Con esta definición Tylor es considerado el inventor del concepto científico de la cultura. Para él, la cultura es la expresión de la totalidad de la vida social del hombre, la cual es adquirida y no heredada en forma biológica. Este autor sostiene que no hay diferencias en la naturaleza de primitivos y civilizados, sino distintos grados de avance cultural. Esto fue probado por medio de la observación de la cultura de pueblos primitivos que habían sobrevivido entre otros civilizados en México.

Por otro lado, Franz Boas es el inventor de la etnografía. Sus investigaciones se basaban en la observación directa y prolongada de las culturas primitivas a través de un método inductivo e intensivo. Para él, el etnólogo tiene que adentrarse de lleno en la cultura que estudia, lo cual significa que debe conocer su idioma, entrevistarse con sus integrantes y hasta escuchar conversaciones privadas. Una de las conclusiones derivadas de sus estudios es que la diferencia fundamental entre los grupos humanos es de orden cultural y no racial, ya que las razas no son más que un conjunto de caracteres inestables y en constante mutación.

Durkheim, quien es de la misma época que Boaz, contribuye a la expansión del término cultura en Francia. Su intención era comprender lo social en todas sus dimensiones. Para él, en toda sociedad existe una "conciencia colectiva" formada por ideales, valores y sentimientos compartidos por los miembros de una sociedad. Al igual que Tylor y Boaz, Durkheim no concebía una diferencia de naturaleza entre primitivos y civilizados.

Más adelante aparece Levy-Bruhl, quien se mostraba en desacuerdo con algunos postulados de Tylor y Durkheim. Este autor trabajó para refutar la teoría evolucionista unilineal. Para él no todos los humanos evolucionaban paralelamente, sino que el avance era desigual entre las diferentes culturas.


1.c Estudio de las Relaciones entre Culturas
Es una realidad que ninguna cultura existe en estado eternamente puro, sino que éstas se ven constantemente influenciadas por agentes externos. Cuando se habla de agentes externos penetrando en una cultura, se habla de relaciones entre culturas en donde una ejerce influencia sobre la otra. Algunas conceptos claves con los cuales se estudia sobre este tema son el la aculturación, el sincretismo (que es la mezcla de las culturas), y el mestizaje cultural.

La aculturación es definida como "el conjunto de fenómenos que resultan del contacto continuo y directo entre grupos de individuos de culturas diferentes y que inducen a cambios de modelos culturales". Roger Bastide habla de dos tipos de aculturación: la formal y la material. La formal hace referencia a la psiquis, la cual es un conjunto de estructuras inconscientes arraigadas a la cultura; la material se refiere a todo lo que es "materia", que es constituida por echos perceptibles como por ejemplo valores o representaciones observadas en rituales.

Bastide sostiene que en el análisis de toda situación de aculturación hay un grupo dominante y uno dominado, pero que aun así no hay cultura que sea únicamente "dadora" o únicamente "receptora", sino que la transferencia de elementos es bidireccional. Este autor propone en forma general tres tipos de aculturación:
a. una espontánea, en donde el cambio se debe simplemente al contacto libre y natural;
b. una organizada pero forzada, en donde un grupo es sometido a los intereses del grupo dominante, como en el caso de la esclavitud o la colonización;
c. una planificada, la cual se plantea como sistemática y es a largo plazo.


Unidad 2: Procesos Socioculturales


2a. Jerarquías Sociales y Jerarquias Culturales
Existen culturas dominantes y culturas dominadas, las cuales son productos del contexto social (que es naturalmente desigual) en el que éstas coexisten. Esto no quiere decir que la cultura dominante puede imponer pura y exclusivamente su orden cultural a la más débil ya que ésta también ejerce influencia sobre la cultura fuerte.

Hablar de culturas dominadas nos lleva al debate en torno a la noción de "cultura popular". Michel de Certau (1980) definió a la cultura popular como "la cultura común de la gente común, es decir, una cultura que se fabrica en la cotidianeidad". Hay dos tesis que califican a la cultura popular: por un lado existe la tesis minimalista, la cual no le reconoce ninguna dinámica propia y la considera como derivada de la cultura dominante; por otro lado, la tesis maximalista sostiene que son culturas auténticas y autónomas.

Ahora, hablar de la cultura popular nos lleva a pensar en la noción de "cultura de masas". La producción de este tipo de cultura obedece a esquemas de producción industrial, y el desarrollo de los medios masivos de comunicación juega un papel vital en su diseminación. Muchos estudios han concluido en que existe una nivelación cultural en muchos grupos debido al efecto de la uniformidad cultural y generalizadora de los medios masivos de comunicación. Sin embargo, estas conclusiones han sido disputadas por la idea de que a pasar que el contenido transmitido es estandarizado, éste no es recibido de la misma manera por los distintos grupos e individuos.


2b. Cultura e Identidad
Las nociones de cultura e identidad son en algunos aspectos similares en cuanto a su significado, pero a la vez tienen diferencias claramente marcadas. Mientras que la cultura se origina en gran parte en procesos inconscientes, la identidad remite a una norma de pertenencia necesariamente consciente. Para la psicología social la identidad es una herramienta que permite pensar la articulación de lo psicológico y de los social en el individuo. De los términos cultura e identidad surge la frase "identidad cultural", la cual se caracteriza por su polisemia.

La cuestión de la identidad cultural remite a una cuestión más amplia que es la identidad social. La identidad social de un individuo se caracteriza por el conjunto de sus pertenencias en el sistema social, como por ejemplo una clase de sexo, una clase etaria, una clase social, una nación, etc. Este tipo de identidad también define a grupos de individuos, incluyéndolos o excluyéndolo de ese grupo.

Existe una corriente de pensamiento que concibe a la identidad como esencia que el individuo interioriza y que no se puede evolucionar o cambiar. Sin embargo, Fredrik Barth (1969) considera que la identidad  es algo mucho más dinámico, ya que los actores mismos de un grupo deciden qué atributos de sus identidades son los que tienen importancia en la situación relacional en la que se encuentran.

Otra teorías de la identidad cultural calificadas de "primordialistas" consideran que la identidad etnocultural es primordial porque la pertenencia al grupo étnico es la primera y la más fundamental de todas las pertenencias sociales porque es en donde se crean los vínculos más determinantes.


2c.Cultura Política
La palabra cultura se convirtió un término corriente del vocabulario político contemporáneo, como si los políticos pensaran a través del uso esta palabra sus declaraciones gozan de más legitimidad que si usan la palabra "ideología".

Para aprender la dimensión cultural en la política los investigadores recurren a la noción de "cultura política". Precisamente, dos investigadores norteamericanos establecieron una tipología de las culturas políticas. Ellos reconocen la cultura "de parroquia", centrada en los intereses locales, con una política tradicional y descentralizada; la cultura de "sujeción", que conlleva la pasividad de los individuos, y le corresponde una estructura autoritaria; y finalmente, la cultura de "participación", que le corresponde una estructura democrática.








Tuesday, June 25, 2013

Didáctica: 2nd Parcial

1. Realice un cuadro en el que coloque las principales características de los tres enfoques de la enseñanza propuestos por Fensertmacher, atendiendo a la triada pedagógica Alumno-Docente-Contenido











2. Realice un breve recorrido por el término Curriculum. Mencione las diferentes concepciones y usos del mismo ¿Cómo define Stenhouse el Curriculum?

3. Desarrollo sólo la primera concepción desde la perspectiva pedagógica de curriculum: el curriculum como modelo de práctica. Opcional A: puede desarrollar brevemente en qué consiste la aplicación de la primera concepción pedagógica de curriculum. Opción B: puede desarrollar brevemente en qué consiste la segunda concepción pedagógica de curriculum: el curriculum como proyecto de elaboración colectiva.

4. Desarrolle la perspectiva sociológica: el curriculum en una compleja realidad socializadora. Brinde un ejemplo de curriculum oculto y de curriculum nulo.

5. ¿Cuál es el papel de la política curricular en el curriculum? ¿Cómo se entiende el curriculum prescripto? Desarrolle las tres primeras funciones del curriculum prescripto.

Saturday, June 8, 2013

Didáctica: 1° Parcial

1. Desarrolle los hitos históricos de la Didáctica ubicando autor, año y focalización del momento histórico. Desarrolle uno de los debates y alguna de las consecuencias.
Como primer hito histórico podemos mencionar a la Didáctica Magna (1657) de Comenio, que basada en premisas de armonía con la naturaleza, buscaba que la enseñanza  a través de métodos y de la organización de reglas fuera eficaz.

Herbart en el siglo XIX apuntó al desarrollo de los pasos formales de la enseñanza, enfatizando el proceso de la instrucción como transmisión del saber.

Así mismo, en el siglo XX con aportes de Montessori, Decroly, Freire y Freinet se configura el enfoque de la escuela nueva. La expansión de la escolaridad pública, el liberalismo político y los avances del conocimiento de la psicología del desarrollo facilitaron la concreción de experiencias significativas en el campo didáctico.

Otro hito es el que se da con el desarrollo de la didáctica como expresión de la tecnocracia, gracias a las conclusiones derivadas de la psicología conductista y a la expansión de la planificación eficientista. Con este suceso se fortalece las metodologías basadas en el objetivismo y la eliminación simbólica del sujeto.

2. Realice un análisis comparativo entre las principales definiciones de la Didáctica planteadas en el texto de Ferrari y Sáenz. Desarrolle los tres enfoques en el campo de la investigación didáctica.
• Según Díaz Barriga (1998) la didáctica es una disciplina muy peculiar que se estructura para atender los problemas de la enseñanza en la situación de acción didáctica del aula.

• Así mismo, para Feldman (1999) la didáctica es una disciplina volcada de diferentes maneras hacia el campo práctico de la enseñanza, que produce una gama variada de conocimientos y abarca principios teóricos, modelos comprensivos, reglas prácticas, y métodos y estrategias articuladas de distinta índole.

• Para Litwin (1999) la didáctica se entiende como teoría acerca de las prácticas de la enseñanza significadas en los contextos socio-histórico en que se inscriben.

Alvarez Méndez (2000) define a la didáctica como el conjunto de actividades que, organizadas por el enseñante, favorecen la adquisición de saberes culturales por parte del estudiante.

Llevando a cabo un análisis comparativo entre las cuatro definiciones plateadas, se puede decir que  Díaz Barriga y Feldman coinciden en calificar a la didáctica como una disciplina.

Así mismo, la definición de Díaz Barriga  designa a la didáctica como estructura diseñada para atender los problemas de la enseñanza, mientras que  Litwin  la observa como teoría de las prácticas de la enseñanza. Otro punto de divergencia entre estos autores es que el primero sitúa su definición en el contexto físico del aula, mientras que segundo lo hace en el contexto socio-histórico.

Para Alvarez Méndez, la didáctica es un conjunto de actividades que favorece la adquisición de conocimientos, mientras que para Feldman la didáctica produce conocimientos.

Haciendo referencia de los enfoques de investigación didáctica Contreras (1990) señala los siguientes:
Enfoque positivista: es de naturaleza instrumental y lleva a cabo experimentos con el fin de producir conceptualizaciones, que a partir de variables, se puedan aplicar cuando se desarrolla una situación de clase.
Enfoque interpretativo: estudia cualitativamente a los sujetos de la didáctica. Describe la interpretación de lo que ocurre en la situación de acción didáctica.
La didáctica como ciencia aplicada: con aportes de la sociología y psicopedagogía, intenta integrar la teoría con la práctica. La reflexión es el mejor modo para perfeccionar la acción didáctica

3. A qué refiere cada generación de la didáctica. En cuál de ellas se hace presente la dimensión prescriptiva-normativa y la explicativa-comprensiva.
Jean Paul Bronckart (1989) distingue tres generaciones de didácticas:
Didáctica tradicional: En la disciplina de este contexto existe una confusión entre el enseñar y el aprender. El didacta es un erudito que trabaja con contenidos conceptuales a través de una metodología conductista. Así mismo, este tipo de didáctica busca la aplicación de las ciencias al campo pedagógico.
Didáctica congnitivista: Los contenidos conceptuales siguen siendo predominantes a la hora de enseñar. La enseñanza es planteada como una resolución de problemas o tarea cognitiva a la que se enfrenta el estudiante. No considera el estado socio-histórico del estudiante.
Didáctica de nueva dimensión: Los conocimientos específicos de distintas disciplinas son utilizados para elaborar estrategias de acción.

 La característica prescriptiva-normativa es la que ordena y regula a través de verbos como "debe" y "tiene" para determinar propósitos y métodos de enseñanza, y se encuentra en la didáctica tradicional. El aspecto explicativo-comprensivo que busca explicar el por qué de los fenómenos que acontecen en el aula está presente en la didáctica congnitivista.

4. Desarrolle la enseñanza como práctica social, humana, histórica, política e intencional. Establezca una diferencia entre la definición genérica de la enseñanza eficaz y la buena enseñanza desarrollada en el texto el Saber didáctico de Camilloni.
La enseñanza es una práctica social porque implica necesidades, funciones, determinaciones que exceden las provisiones individuales; es humana porque implica relaciones de comunicación y compromiso moral; es histórica porque se contextualiza en un tiempo y lugar determinado; es política porque comprende un proyecto de política educativa; es intencional porque tiene propósito y porque requiere un objetivo y un proceso sistemático. 

Según Mager, la enseñanza eficaz es aquella que logra cambiar a los alumnos en la dirección deseada y no en una no deseada. Este autor sostiene que si la enseñanza no cambia a nadie no puede ser considerada eficaz. Por otro lado, Fenstermacher afirma que la buena enseñanza es aquella cuyo contenido a transmitir es éticamente justificable, moralmente aceptable y a la vez está inspirado en buenas acciones.

5. Cómo se concibe la enseñanza en el texto de Paulo Freire. Identifique las características que se plantean, las perspectivas técnicas y la críticas respecto de la enseñanza; mencione el papel del docente en cada una de ellas.
Paulo Freire concibe a la enseñanza como un proceso en donde el enseñar y el aprender van de la mano. Una característica de este proceso es que no solo aprende el aprendiz, sino también el educador, quien con una postura humilde puede disponerse a repesar lo pensado y revisar sus posiciones.

Otra característica a tener en cuenta es que debido a la responsabilidad ética, política y profesional del educador, éste debe capacitarse y graduarse para poder ejercer su profesión. A partir de entonces, el análisis crítico sobre su práctica y la capacitación nunca terminan.

Freire sostiene que el acto de estudiar siempre implica el de leer, el cual es una opción inteligente, difícil, exigente, pero gratificante. Según él, se lee la palabra pero también se lee el mundo.

A partir de la lectura se busca la comprensión. Esta será tanto más profunda en cuanto más capaz se sea para asociar con ella la experiencia escolar. La comprensión exige la actividad intelectual de pasar de la experiencia sensorial de lo cotidiano a la generalización que se opera en el lenguaje escolar.

Wednesday, May 1, 2013

Phonetics and Phonology III: 1st Mid Term Exam

Cruttenden, A. (2008) Gimson's Pronunciation of English

3.2.1 Fundamental Frequency: Pitch
Pitch is the frequency of vibration made by the vocal folds when uttering a syllable.
Our perception of pitch depends directly on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds; the higher the glottal fundamental frequency, the higher our impression of voice. In this sense, the human ear perceives frequencies within a range that goes from as low as 16 Hz to about 20,000 Hz, considerably surpassing the voice range of the average male which goes from 80 to 350 Hz.

There are several methods used to measure the fundamental frequency of speech sounds, and probably one of the most popular ones is that which involves the measurement of the vibration of vocal folds by electroglottography. By means of a laryngograph, electrodes attached to the throat send electric signals that are monitored in a visual display.

It's worth noting that the measurement of fundamental frequency don't always correspond to the auditory perception of pitch.

3.2.2 Intensity: Loudness
The sensation of loudness in speech sounds stems from the intensity at the production stage on the part of the speaker. A sound may be perceived as being louder than others either because of a pitch change or because a syllable is longer than its neighbors. In any case, it is the amplitude of vibration, along with an increase in air pressure from the lungs, what creates the impression of loudness.

However, aside from what happens at the production stage, some sounds are by nature more sonorous than others, such as vowels, which carry more energy than consonants.

3.2.3 Duration: Length
The duration of sounds in acoustic terms don't always correspond to the linguistic judgment of length. Thus,  length-wise there are only two distinguishable kind of vowels that are linguistically significant: long and short vowels, but realistically the duration of any vowel of these two groups will vary in accordance to factors such as whether the utterance is spoken quickly or slowly, whether the syllable containing the vowel is accented or not, and whether the vowel is followed by a voiced or voiceless consonant.

11.6 Intonation
Intonation is the use of pitch of the voice to convey linguistic information; in other terms, it is the rise and fall of the voice in connected speech.
Pitch changes in English have three different functions: 1) they signal the division of utterances into intonational phrases; 2) they signal syllables with primary and secondary accent; 3) the shape of the tunes produced by pitch changes can carry various types of meaning, such as discursal or attitudinal.

11.6.1 The Forms of Intonation
11.6.1.1 Intonational Phrases: The boundaries between intonational phrases may be indicated by a combination of internal and external factors. The most obvious signal of boundary among external factors is a pause. But alternatively speakers may lengthen the final syllable before a boundary, or utter the unaccented syllables following the boundary more quickly. As regards internal factors, they indicate boundaries when a pitch pattern associated with a nuclear tone is completed, or when there's a jump in the pitch height of unaccented syllables because this only occurs at boundaries.

Monday, April 29, 2013

Didáctica: 1er Parcial

¿Cuáles son las características de la práctica docente?

Relación de las ciencias aplicadas y los enfoques.

Apunte B: Didáctica Práctica para Enseñanza Media y Superior

Caracterización de los enfoques
Contreras señala tres enfoques en el campo de la investigación didáctica:

El enfoque positivista: Es de naturaleza instrumental y lleva a cabo experimentos con el fin de establecer conceptualizaciones a aplicarse en el contexto de la clase.
El enfoque interpretativo: Investiga cualitativamente a los sujetos de la didáctica; describe las interpretaciones de lo que ocurre en la situación didáctica.
La didáctica como ciencia aplicada: Con aportes de la sociología y psicopedagogía, intenta integrar la teoría con la práctica. La reflexión es el mejor modo para perfeccionar la acción didáctica.


Aproximaciones a la Didáctica
Según Feldman la didáctica es una disciplina volcada de diferentes maneras hacia el campo práctico de la enseñanza, que produce una gama variada de conocimientos y abarca principios teóricos, modelos comprensivos, reglas prácticas, métodos y estrategias articuladas de distinta índole. Otra definición, por Alvarez Méndez, describe a la didáctica como el conjunto de actividades que, organizadas por el enseñante, favorecen la adquisición de saberes culturales por parte del estudiante.

Desde otro punto de vista, la didáctica es el resultado de procesos conflictivos en cuanto al aspecto metodológico e ideológico. Esta disciplina es teórica pues responde a la concepción de educación de una determinada sociedad; es histórica pues sus propuestas responden al momento histórico en el que se vive; y es política pues se encuadra en un proyecto de sociedad.

Los Aportes de las Distintas Disciplinas y Lineas de Investigación
La evolución de las disciplinas y de la cultura han delineado nuevas trayectorias que de a poco han producido cambios en los paradigmas. La didáctica moderna es el resultado de procesos evolutivos y conflictivos de matiz metodológico e ideológico, en los que la epistemología, psicología y pedagogía han sido fuentes desde las cuales la didáctica se ha nutrido.

Jean Pail Bronckart distingue tres generaciones de didácticas:
1) Didáctica tradicional: En la disciplina de este contexto existe una confusión entre el enseñar y el aprender. El didacta es un erudito que trabaja con contenidos conceptuales a través de una metodología conductista.
2) Didáctica congnitivista: Aquí la enseñanza es planteada como una tarea cognitiva a la que se enfrenta el estudiante.
3) Didáctica de nueva dimensión: Los conocimientos específicos de distintas disciplinas son utilizados para elaborar estrategias de acción.

La situación actual de la didáctica se caracteriza por la oposición entre la didáctica general y las didácticas especiales. Estas últimas son definidas como campos específicos de sus respectivas ciencias, sin relación con un marco de didáctica general.

La Relación Teoría Práctica
Feldman sostiene que la teoría es un estado de conocimiento que consiste de productos didácticos tales como la teoría misma, los programas y las normativas. La práctica a su vez corresponde a la acción de los maestros en clase, la enseñanza.

Apunte A: Corrientes Didácticas Contemporáneas

Conflictos en la Didáctica
A medida que la Didáctica y las disciplinas adyacentes evolucionan, reordenamientos y cambios de paradigmas  se producen forzando a los teóricos de la Didáctica a reformular sus prácticas científicas. La evolución en la disciplina y en las demás Ciencias de la Educación produce aportes del saber que lejos de producir una integración, propician una fragmentación en la que es común observar pujas por la dominación.

Actualmente en la didáctica, esto se traduce en el debate sobre la definición del ámbito de la didáctica general y las didácticas especiales. En un proceso que resulta ser disolvente, muchos especialistas se han preocupado por reconceptualizar las didácticas en torno a los contenidos de enseñanza, sin considerar la relación de éstas con un marco de didáctica general.

Otra problemática se encuentra en la ineficacia de la interdisciplinariedad en la didáctica. Debido a que la enseñanza es un objeto de interés común para diversas disciplinas, siempre hay discusiones en cuanto al dominio y hegemonía de una ciencia por sobre la otra, las cuales están muchas veces influidas por etiquetas tales como las que califican a algunas disciplinas como más "serias" que otras.

Apunte C: El Saber Didáctico

Enseñanza
Puede definirse a la enseñanza como un intento de transmitir cierto contenido a alguien. En este sentido, esta actividad involucra a una persona que enseña, un contenido que intenta ser transmitido y una persona que desea ser enseñada. Esta actividad es llevada a cabo en un marco que se ajusta a las rasgos tanto del conocimiento a transmitir como de las características de sus destinatarios.

Es importante considerar que el término enseñanza se utiliza independientemente de si el estudiante adquiere el conocimiento que se le es enseñado. Muchas veces la enseñanza actúa de forma indirecta sobre el estudiante, en tanto éste, pasado el proceso de enseñanza, emprende una serie de actividades que son llamadas "estudiantar" en las que él mismo busca apoderarse del contenido.

Por otro lado, es digno de destacar que la enseñanza encuentra en la escuela el lugar ideal para su desarrollo en su forma más precisa; es decir, como una acción intencional y sistemática. Haciendo alusión a la parte intencional de la enseñanza, Mager menciona que en primer lugar se decide a dónde se quiere ir, después se administran los medios para llegar ahí, y finalmente se verifica si se ha llegado al objetivo planteado.

La Enseñanza como Actividad Natural y como Práctica Social
El hombre durante el trascurso de su evolución ha logrado transformar el entorno en donde vive de un modo tal que éste a pasado de ser un medio natural a un sistema más complejo. En consecuencia, para la adaptación de los recién nacidos a este medio ya no son suficientes las destrezas propias de los instintos, sino que se requiere de la enseñanza, la cual es la actividad con la que el hombre asegura su continuidad como especie.

Con la creciente complejización de las sociedades, la formación de los jóvenes se convirtió en un factor clave para la evolución del hombre. La educación dejó de ser un proceso natural y espontáneo, y se convirtió en un proceso sistemático y de responsabilidad colectiva. Consecuentemente, la educación empezó a desarrollarse en dispositivos más formales, con procedimientos más estandarizados. Más adelante, el Estado se convirtió en el administrador del sistema educativo, el cual posicionó a la escuela como dispositivo pedagógico hegemónico.

En la modernidad la enseñanza no solo tiene consecuencias sobre la vida de las personas, sino también sobre el devenir de las sociedades y el destino de las naciones. Según Egan, tres grandes preocupaciones han marcado la orientación de los sistemas educativos a lo largo de su evolución. En primer lugar, la formación del ciudadano y del trabajador, con la cual se enfatiza la transmisión de los conocimientos, normas y valores de la sociedad, y se piensa a la escuela como un sistema de producción al servicio de los insumos de la sociedad. En segundo lugar, el cultivo académico, el cual intenta proporcionar al estudiante una visión racional de la realidad a través de las estructuras conceptuales que ofrecen las disciplinas. Esta idea ha fundamentado la enseñanza de contenidos que no se justifican por su utilidad inmediata. En tercer lugar, el desarrollo personal del sujeto, para promover el despliegue de las potencialidades propias del alumno.

La Enseñanza en la Escuela
El surgimiento de la escuela y su evolución es el resultado de diversos procesos sociales, culturales y económicos. Según Trilla, la escuela tiene los siguientes rasgos característicos:

1. Es un espacio social especializado: La escuela está separada del ámbito social más amplio, y aunque a veces tiende puentes con el mundo exterior, nunca se aleja de su propio ámbito aislado.
2. Se enseña de modo descontextualizado: Los saberes se transmiten en un escenario artificial, fuera del ámbito en donde esos conocimientos se producen y utilizan. Los textos escolares, mapas, pizarrones son usados con el fin de reponer ese mundo exterior.
3. El tiempo es segmentado: El tiempo para el aprendizaje se divide y solidifica en ciclos, periodos, jornadas, horas, etc. que inciden en los tiempos de la vida social.
4. Existe una delimitación precisa de los roles del docente y del alumno: Son asimétricos y no intercambiables.
5. Se desarrolla en una situación colectiva: En la escuela se enseña a muchos al mismo tiempo, lo cual deriva de la necesidad de trabajar a gran escala.
6. Los contenidos son estandarizados: Los textos curriculares son dictados por una autoridad externa que determina lo que se va a enseñar. Los currículos están sujetos a cambios de acuerdo con la realidad de cada situación escolar.
7. Se evalúan y acreditan aprendizajes: La escuela certifica la posesión de saberes ante diversas agencias sociales por medio de diplomas.
8. Existen prácticas pedagógicas bastante uniformes: Aun en distintos países y contextos las normas y regulación de tareas dentro de la escuela son bastante similares.